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UNITED STATES

SECURITIES AND EXCHANGE COMMISSION

Washington, D.C. 20549

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FORM 20-F

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(Mark One)

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For the fiscal year ended December 31, 2025.

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Date of event requiring this shell company report _____________

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For the transition period from _____________to _____________

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Commission file number:   001-35729

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Securities registered or to be registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act:

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* Not for trading, but only in connection with the listing on The Nasdaq Stock Market LLC of the American depositary shares (“ADSs”).

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Securities registered or to be registered pursuant to Section 12(g) of the Act:

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Securities for which there is a reporting obligation pursuant to Section 15(d) of the Act:

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Indicate the number of outstanding shares of each of the Issuer’s classes of capital or common stock as of the close of the period covered by the annual report. 673,183,174 Class A common shares, par value US$0.00001 per share, and 326,509,555 Class B common shares, par value US$0.00001 per share, were outstanding as of December 31, 2025.

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Indicate by check mark if the registrant is a well-known seasoned issuer, as defined in Rule 405 of the Securities Act.   Yes ☒ No ☐

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If this report is an annual or transition report, indicate by check mark if the registrant is not required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934.   Yes ☐ No ☒

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Note–Checking the box above will not relieve any registrant required to file reports pursuant to Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 from their obligations under those Sections.

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant: (1) has filed all reports required to be filed by Section 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to file such reports), and (2) has been subject to such filing requirements for the past 90 days.  Yes ☒ No ☐

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has submitted electronically every Interactive Data File required to be submitted pursuant to Rule 405 of Regulation S-T (§232.405 of this chapter) during the preceding 12 months (or for such shorter period that the registrant was required to submit such files).   Yes ☒ No ☐

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a large accelerated filer, an accelerated filer, a non-accelerated filer, or an emerging growth company. See definition of “large accelerated filer,” “accelerated filer,” and “emerging growth company” in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act.

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If an emerging growth company that prepares its financial statements in accordance with U.S. GAAP, indicate by check mark if the registrant has elected not to use the extended transition period for complying with any new or revised financial accounting standards† provided pursuant to Section 13(a) of the Exchange Act.  ☐

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† The term “new or revised financial accounting standard” refers to any update issued by the Financial Accounting Standards Board to its Accounting Standards Codification after April 5, 2012.

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed a report on and attestation to its management’s assessment of the effectiveness of its internal control over financial reporting under Section 404(b) of the Sarbanes Act (15 U.S.C. 7262(b)) by the registered public accounting firm that prepared or issued its audit report.  ☒

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If securities are registered pursuant to Section 12(b) of the Act, indicate by check mark whether the financial statements of the registrant included in the filing reflect the correction of an error to previously issued financial statements. ☐

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Indicate by check mark whether any of those error corrections are restatements that required a recovery analysis of incentive-based compensation received by any of the registrant’s executive officers during the relevant recovery period pursuant to §240.10D-1(b). ☐

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Indicate by check mark which basis of accounting the registrant has used to prepare the financial statements included in this filing:

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If “Other” has been checked in response to the previous question, indicate by check mark which financial statement item the registrant has elected to follow.   Item 17 ☐        Item 18 ☐

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If this is an annual report, indicate by check mark whether the registrant is a shell company (as defined in Rule 12b-2 of the Exchange Act).   Yes ☐ No ☒

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(APPLICABLE ONLY TO ISSUERS INVOLVED IN BANKRUPTCY PROCEEDINGS DURING THE PAST FIVE YEARS)

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Indicate by check mark whether the registrant has filed all documents and reports required to be filed by Sections 12, 13 or 15(d) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 subsequent to the distribution of securities under a plan confirmed by a court.   Yes ☐ No ☐

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INTRODUCTION

Unless otherwise indicated and except where the context otherwise requires, references in this annual report on Form 20-F to:

Our reporting currency is U.S. dollars since a majority of our revenues and expenses are denominated in U.S. dollars.

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FORWARD-LOOKING STATEMENTS

This annual report contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. All statements other than statements of historical facts are forward-looking statements. These forward-looking statements are made under the “safe harbor” provisions of the U.S. Private Securities Litigation Reform Act of 1995. These statements involve known and unknown risks, uncertainties and other factors that may cause our actual results, performance or achievements to be materially different from those expressed or implied by the forward-looking statements.

You can identify these forward-looking statements by words or phrases such as “may,” “will,” “expect,” “is expected to,” “anticipate,” “aim,” “estimate,” “intend,” “plan,” “believe,” “is/are likely to” or other similar expressions. We have based these forward-looking statements largely on our current expectations and projections about future events and financial trends that we believe may affect our financial condition, results of operations, business strategy and financial needs. These forward-looking statements include, but are not limited to, statements about:

You should thoroughly read this annual report and the documents that we refer to herein with the understanding that our actual future results may be materially different from and/or worse than what we expect. Other sections of this annual report, including “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors” and “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects,” discuss factors which could adversely impact our business and financial performance. Moreover, we operate in an evolving environment. New risk factors emerge from time to time and it is not possible for our management to predict all risk factors, nor can we assess the impact of all factors on our business or the extent to which any factor, or combination of factors, may cause actual results to differ materially from those contained in any forward-looking statements. We qualify all of our forward-looking statements by these cautionary statements.

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You should not rely upon forward-looking statements we make as predictions of future events. The forward-looking statements made in this annual report relate only to events or information as of the date on which the statements are made in this annual report. We undertake no obligation to update or revise any forward-looking statements, whether as a result of new information, future events or otherwise, except as required by applicable law.

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PART I

ITEM 1.     IDENTITY OF DIRECTORS, SENIOR MANAGEMENT AND ADVISORS

Not applicable.

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ITEM 2.     OFFER STATISTICS AND EXPECTED TIMETABLE

Not applicable.

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ITEM 3.     KEY INFORMATION

Our Holding Company Structure

JOYY Inc. is a Cayman Islands holding company that does not have substantive operations of its own. Investors in JOYY Inc. are not acquiring equity interest in any operating company but instead are acquiring interest in a Cayman Islands holding company. We conduct the majority of our business through our subsidiaries in Singapore, the United States, and other jurisdictions. As a result, JOYY Inc.’s ability to pay dividends depends upon dividends paid by our subsidiaries, which is subject to restrictions imposed by the applicable laws and regulations of the relevant jurisdictions. We currently operate in several key markets across the globe, including North America, Europe, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and others.

We conduct a portion of our operations in mainland China, which accounted for 15.3%, 10.4% and 9.8% of our total net revenues for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively. Due to legal restrictions in mainland China on foreign investment in certain internet-related business, value-added telecommunication services and other-related businesses, we operate these businesses in mainland China through the VIEs, with which we have entered into contractual arrangements. For more details of these contractual arrangements, see “Item 7. Major Shareholders and Related Party Transactions—B. Related Party Transactions—VIE Structure and the Contractual Arrangements.” For the condensed consolidating schedule of financial information of JOYY Inc., the VIEs, the primary beneficiaries of the VIEs, and other equity subsidiaries, see “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects—A. Operating Results—Financial Information Related to the Variable Interest Entities.” For risks related to the VIE structure, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in the Jurisdictions Where We Operate—We are subject to risks related to our corporate structure in mainland China.”

We have established stringent controls and procedures for cash flows within our organization. Each transfer of cash between our Cayman Islands holding company and our subsidiaries, the VIEs or their subsidiaries is subject to internal approval. For details of the cash and asset flows through our organization, see “Item 5. Operating and Financial Review and Prospects—B. Liquidity and Capital Resources—Cash and Asset Flows Through Our Organization.”

Not applicable.

Not applicable.

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Summary of Risk Factors

An investment in our ADSs is subject to a number of risks, including risks related to our business and industry, risks related to doing business in the jurisdictions where we operate, and risks related to our ADSs. The following summarizes some, but not all, of these risks. Please carefully consider all of the information discussed in “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors” in this annual report for a more thorough description of these and other risks.

Risks Related to Our Business and Industry

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Risks Related to Doing Business in the Jurisdictions Where We Operate

Risks Related to Our ADSs

Risks Related to Our Business and Industry

We are subject to risks associated with operating in rapidly developing industries and evolving markets.

Our business and prospects depend on continued development of the global online social entertainment, advertising technology and smart commerce solution industries. The markets for our services are rapidly developing and evolving, and are subject to significant challenges. We cannot assure you that we will succeed in the industries in which we operate or that these industries will continue to grow.

As a growing number of entertainment, advertising or smart commerce solution options emerge that directly or indirectly compete with the services that we offer, these services may not maintain or see increases in their current popularity. Growth of the online social entertainment, advertising technology and smart commerce solution industries is affected by numerous factors, such as quality, user experience, technological innovations, development of internet and internet-based services, regulatory environment, and macroeconomic environment. If the services that we offer lose their popularity due to changing social trends and consumer preferences, or if these markets do not grow as quickly as expected, our results of operation and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

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If we fail to effectively manage our growth or implement our business strategies, our business and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

We believe that our continued growth will depend on our ability to develop new sources of revenue, increase monetization, attract new users, retain and expand paying users, encourage additional purchases by our paying users, continue developing innovative products, services and technologies in response to user demand, increase brand awareness through marketing and promotional activities, react to changes in user access to and use of the internet, expand into new market segments, integrate new devices, platforms and operating systems, develop new advertising and promotion methods, attract new advertisers and retain existing advertisers, attract new merchants, retain and increase revenues from existing merchants, and take advantage of any growth in the relevant markets. We cannot assure you that we will achieve any of the above or achieve any of the above in a cost-effective manner.

To manage our growth and maintain profitability, we anticipate that we will need to continue to implement, from time to time, a variety of new and upgraded operational and financial systems, procedures and controls on an as-needed basis. We will also need to further expand, train, manage and motivate our workforce and manage our relationships with users, performers, third-party game developers, advertisers, media platforms, merchants, app developers, payment processors, shipping companies and other business partners. All of these endeavors involve risks and will require substantial management efforts and skills and significant additional expenditures. We cannot assure you that we will be able to effectively manage our growth or implement our future business strategies, and failure to do so may materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations.

Our current businesses have a limited operating history, and you should consider our prospects in light of the risks and uncertainties which early-stage companies in evolving industries globally may be exposed to or encounter, including possible volatility in the trading prices of our ADSs.

Our current businesses have a limited operating history upon which to evaluate their viability and sustainability. We acquired BIGO, our core business segment, in 2019, launched BIGO Ads in 2019, and obtained control over Shopline in 2022. We have a relatively short history operating these businesses. Therefore, our recent results of operations may not provide a meaningful basis for evaluating our business, financial performance and future prospects. We may not be able to achieve similar growth rates in future periods as we had witnessed historically, including for each of our business offerings including BIGO Ads and Shopline. The actual performance of each of our business offerings may differ from our current expectations. Accordingly, you should not rely on our results of operations for any prior periods as an indication of our future performance. We may again incur net losses and experience adverse impact on our results of operations brought on by our new businesses in the future and you should consider our prospects in light of the risks and uncertainties which early-stage companies in evolving industries globally with limited operating history may be exposed to or encounter, including risks associated with being a public company with global business operations. See “—Risks Related to Our ADSs—The trading prices of our ADSs are likely to be volatile, which could result in substantial losses to investors.”

Although our core business segment BIGO has started to generate profit since 2021, the consolidation of Shopline’s financial results starting from September 6, 2022 adversely affected our financial results as Shopline has been incurring net losses and may continue to have similar impact on our results of operations in the future. In 2024 and 2025, our All other segment (which includes Shopline) recognized sizable net operating losses, despite consistent net operating incomes achieved by the BIGO segment.

Our profitability is also affected by other factors beyond our control, such as the continual development of the industries in which we operate in multiple countries, changes in the macroeconomic and regulatory environment or competitive dynamics and our inability to respond to these changes in a timely and effective manner. We may incur significant costs and expenses in many aspects of our business, such as sales and marketing expenses to acquire users, merchants or advertisers and raise our brand awareness, as well as research and development costs to update existing services, launch new services, and rising bandwidth costs to support our social entertainment, advertising and smart commerce solution functions, grow our user base and generally expand our business operations. The continued success of our business depends on our ability to identify which services will appeal to our user base and to offer such services on commercially acceptable terms. Our ability to finance our planned expansion also depends in part on our ability to attract new customers and increase the average revenue per customer, and successfully compete in a very competitive market. We may incur net losses in the future.

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We generate a majority of our revenues from live streaming services. If user demand for our live streaming service decreases, or if we fail to serve user demand effectively, our results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

A majority of our revenues are generated from live streaming services. For the year ended December 31, 2025, revenues from live streaming constituted 72.0% of our total net revenues. While we have made solid progress exploring and diversifying our revenue streams, particularly with the growth of our advertising technology platform, BIGO Ads, we expect that the majority of our revenues will continue to be contributed from live streaming services in the near future. If user demand for our live streaming service decreases, or if we fail to serve user demand effectively, we may experience declines in live streaming revenues which may materially and adversely affect our results of operations. See “—The revenue model for each of our live streaming and our membership program may not remain effective, which may affect our ability to retain existing users and attract new users and materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.”

We may face significant risks related to the content, information, communications and other activities on our platforms.

Our live streaming, short video and video communication platforms enable users to exchange information, generate and distribute content, advertise products and services, conduct business and engage in various other online activities. However, because a majority of the communications on our platforms are conducted in real time, we are unable to verify the sources of all information posted thereon or examine the content generated by users before it is posted. Despite our dedication to implementing and maintaining an effective content moderation system, there can be no assurance that it will be effective at all times in preventing misconduct by our platform users. In addition, we continually work to enhance the effectiveness of our content moderation system to fulfil our social responsibilities, but such efforts may negatively affect our business operations as the system may misjudge our users’ normal conduct and affect their experience on our platform, which could lead to a decrease in the number of our mobile active users and paying users and a decrease in our revenues, among other things. For a description of how content can be accessed on or through our platforms, and what measures we take to lessen the likelihood that we will be held liable for the nature of such content, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Technology,” “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Intellectual Property,” and “—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—We have been and may be subject to intellectual property infringement, misappropriation or other claims or allegations in multiple jurisdictions, which could result in our payment of substantial damages, penalties and fines, removal of relevant content from our website, removal of relevant application from application store platform, or seeking license arrangements which may not be available on commercially reasonable terms.”

Because we do not have full control over how and what users will use our platform to communicate, our platform may be misused by individuals or groups of individuals to engage in immoral, disrespectful, fraudulent or illegal activities. Even though we seek to detect on a timely basis spam accounts through which illegal or inappropriate content is streamed or posted or illegal or fraudulent activities are conducted, there is no guarantee that such incidents would not occur. Media reports and internet forums have covered some of these incidents, which have in some cases generated negative publicity about our platforms and brand. For example, Bigo Live was temporarily removed from the Google Play Store and the iOS App Store in December 2024, which may be partly attributable to some negative media reports in late 2024. Bigo Live was soon reinstated on the Google Play Store in December 2024 and on the iOS App Store in early January 2025. We have implemented enhanced content moderation measures aiming to detect and block in a timely manner illegal or inappropriate content and illegal or fraudulent activities conducted through the misuse of our platforms, but such measures may not prevent all such content from being broadcasted or posted or activities from being carried out. If we fail to promptly and effectively manage and discipline such misconduct or misuse, it may adversely impact our brand image, result in our apps being removed from third-party app stores, and materially harm our business, financial condition, and results of operations. Moreover, as we have limited control over real-time and offline behavior of our users, to the extent such behavior is associated with our platforms, our ability to protect our brand image and reputation may be limited. Our business and the public perception of our brand may be materially and adversely affected by misuse of our platforms. In addition, if any of our users suffers or alleges to have suffered physical, financial or emotional harm following contact initiated on our platforms or after watching unsettling or inappropriate content that our content monitoring system fails to filter out, we may face civil lawsuits or other liabilities initiated by the affected viewer, or governmental or regulatory actions against us. In response to allegations of illegal or inappropriate activities conducted through our platforms or any negative media coverage about us, government authorities may intervene and hold us liable for non-compliance with relevant laws and regulations concerning the dissemination of information on the internet and subject us to administrative penalties or other sanctions, such as requiring us to restrict or discontinue some of the features and services provided on our website and mobile application, or even revoke our licenses or permits to provide internet content service. We endeavor to ensure all users are compliant with relevant regulations, but we cannot guarantee that all users will comply with all the relevant laws and regulations. Therefore, we may be subject to investigations or subsequent penalties if content displayed on our platform is deemed to be illegal or inappropriate under relevant laws and regulations. As a result, our business may suffer and our user base, revenues and profitability may be materially and adversely affected.

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In addition, it is possible that users may engage in illegal, obscene or incendiary conversations or activities, including the publishing of inappropriate, infringing or illegal content on our platforms that may be deemed unlawful. If any content on our platforms is considered or deemed illegal, obscene, infringing or incendiary, or if appropriate licenses and third-party consents have not been obtained, allegations or claims may be brought against us for defamation, libel, negligence, copyright, patent or trademark infringement, other unlawful activities or based on other theories. We have occasionally been fined for certain inappropriate materials placed by third parties on our platforms, and may be subject to similar fines and penalties in the future. We also may face liability for copyright or trademark infringement, fraud, and other claims based on the nature and content of the materials that are delivered, shared or otherwise accessed through or published on our platforms. Defending any such actions could be costly and involve significant time and attention of our management and other resources. If jurisdictional authorities in various regions find that we have not adequately managed the content on our platforms, or if any of our platforms fails to comply with any of such provisions, they may impose legal sanctions on us, including, interviews held by relevant cyberspace authorities, warnings, information update suspension, and in serious cases, suspending or revoking the licenses necessary to operate our platforms, restriction from engaging in internet information services, online behavior restrictions or industry bans.

Our BIGO Ads platform help advertisers deliver advertisements on BIGO’s social apps, such as Likee and imo, and on properties of our network partners. Despite our policies, our platform may be misused by advertisers to deliver prohibited, restricted, or inappropriate content, or content that otherwise fails to adhere to country-specific laws, rules, or regulations. We also work with advertisers that operate in certain regulated industries and markets, each of which imposes additional legal and regulatory requirements on these advertisers, which they may not comply with. On the other end, our platform may also be misused by publishers that attempt to monetize prohibited, restricted, or inappropriate content, and the publishers may engage or attempt to engage in fraudulent or other unlawful activity in violation of our policies. Any of the above may from time to time cause us to incur losses, impose additional operational costs to protect our platform, trigger additional law enforcement or other inquiries, put our reputation at risk, and otherwise adversely affect our business, financial condition, and results of operations.

As our global operations continue to expand, we face significant challenges to ensure the content and communications on our platform are compliant with local jurisdiction’s regulatory framework and social environment, many of which could be substantially different from each other due to the differences in, among others, the legal system, political environment, culture and religion. Such differences may impose more stringent requirements and restrictions to the content we presented. In addition, the regulatory framework for live streaming, short video or video communication, advertising and smart commerce solution business is still developing and remains uncertain in several countries where we have operations, including, but not limited to, countries and regions such as Saudi Arabia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Indonesia, India and mainland China. New laws and regulations may also be adopted from time to time to address new issues that come to the government authorities’ attention. Considerable uncertainties still exist with respect to the interpretation and implementation of existing and future laws and regulations governing our business activities in these areas. In addition, we may be required to impose more stringent content monitoring measures, be in compliance with relevant content regulatory regime, obtain relevant licenses or permits or renew or expand the coverage of our existing licenses, and we cannot assure you that we will be able to timely obtain or maintain all the required licenses or permits or make any necessary filings applicable in the future, or comply with other relevant regulatory requirements. If we fail to obtain, hold or maintain any of the required licenses or permits or make the necessary filings on time or at all, or fail to comply with other regulatory requirements, we may be subject to various penalties, including fines, discontinuation restriction of our operations as well as reputation damage. Cultural differences may also impose additional challenges to our efforts in content control. Therefore, such different and possibly more stringent regulatory and cultural environments may increase the risk exposure to our daily operations in multiple jurisdictions across the globe. We have experienced incidents in the past where our application was temporarily suspended in certain markets due to inappropriate content being displayed on our platform. We have also received claims in connection with intellectual property infringement and entered into settlement or license agreements with third parties or are in the process of negotiating such agreements with third parties to resolve such claims. Such incidents or similar incidents related to our failure to comply with laws, regulations and rules in multiple jurisdictions across the globe could materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations, global reputation and global growth efforts. Requirements of entering into license or settlement agreements may also significantly increase our costs of operations and adversely affect our business results. In addition, each jurisdiction may have a different regulatory framework, implementation and enforcement for live streaming, short video or video communication business and smart commerce solution business, which may substantially increase our compliance costs to obtain, maintain or renew requisite licenses and permits or fulfill any required administrative procedures.

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The revenue model for each of our live streaming and our membership program may not remain effective, which may affect our ability to retain existing users and attract new users and materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We offer live streaming services to our users through multiple platforms using a virtual items-based revenue model whereby users can make real-time broadcast to share life moments, show their talents, interact and send virtual gifts, and enjoy fun live sessions with people worldwide. We have generated, and expect to continue to generate, a majority of our live streaming revenues using this revenue model in the near future. Our live streaming business has declined in recent years, and we cannot assure you that we will be able to achieve a strong growth rate in the future, as the user demand for this service may change, decrease substantially or dissipate, or we may fail to anticipate and serve user demands effectively.

We may not be able to continue to successfully implement the virtual items-based revenue model for live streaming, as users may not be able to develop new relationships in the community, or popular performers, channel owners, and famous professional game teams may leave our platforms and we may be unable to attract new talent that can attract users or cause such users to increase the amount of time spent engaging and money spent on purchasing virtual items on our platforms. In addition, certain content on our live streaming platforms, such as certain online games owned by or licensed to certain gaming companies or publishers, may not continue to be available to our users for live streaming purposes. Failure to keep our users engaged in the live streaming service may result in reducing average revenue per user and the number of paying users, which may adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

Furthermore, under our current arrangements with certain talent performers, agencies, channel owners and famous professional game teams, we share with them a portion of the revenues we derive from the sales of virtual items on our live streaming platform. This revenue-sharing arrangement incentivizes these partners to collaborate with us, but it could also limit our profit growth. Unfavorable changes in the terms of our partnership with key talent performers, agencies and channel owners could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

In addition, we offer an online concert platform to music performers and platform users. We also continue to cultivate professionally-curated user generated content and professionally generated content as well as introducing more e-sports content on our platforms. However, if our users decide to access live streaming content provided by our current or future competitors, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

Users may also purchase time-based virtual items from us, such as the membership subscription service with the designation of Noble Members for themselves. We offer a range of privileges and benefits, such as virtual items exclusively available to members, dedicated customer services specialist and priority entrance to certain live performances. However, we may not be able to further build or maintain our membership base in the future for various reasons. For example, if we fail to continue to provide innovative products and services that are attractive to members, we may not be able to retain them, and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected.

We generate a portion of our revenues from online advertising. If we fail to attract and retain advertisers, or if advertisers are less willing to advertise with us, our revenues may be adversely affected.

We generate a growing portion of our revenues from online advertising, with its percentage contribution growing from 14.4% in 2024 to 20.8% in 2025. We offer advertising services substantially through contracts entered into with advertisers, third-party advertising agencies, and third-party apps where the advertisements can be displayed (which we refer to as our network partners), and by way of displaying advertisements or providing promotions integrated into the programs, shows or other content offered on our platforms or our network partners’ properties.

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Our advertising revenues partly depend on the continual development of the online advertising industry and advertisers’ allocation of budgets to internet advertising. In addition, companies that decide to advertise or promote online may utilize more established methods or channels for online advertising, such as more established internet portals or search engines, over advertising on our platforms. Our ability to increase our online advertising revenues and our profitability and prospects can be influenced by numerous other factors, including (i) growth and trends of the global online advertising market, (ii) our ability to grow our user base and user engagement, particularly for our products that deliver advertisement impressions, (iii) our ability to capture and retain a sufficient share of that market, (iv) our ability to expand our advertiser base into new markets, (v) our ability to improve the effectiveness of advertising on our platforms and enhance our content recommendation algorithms, (vi) our ability to maintain or increase advertiser demand and third-party publisher supply, the quantity, or quality of advertisements shown to users, or our pricing of advertisements, (vii) mobile app changes or inventory management decisions we may make that change the size, format, frequency, or relative prominence of advertisements displayed on our apps, (viii) the development and success of technologies designed to block the display of advertisements or block our ad measurement tools, (ix) decisions by clients to reduce their advertising due to concerns about legal liability or uncertainty regarding their own legal and compliance obligations, or due to negative publicity, regardless of its accuracy, involving us, our user data practices, advertising metrics or tools, our advertising solutions or apps, or other companies in the advertising industry, (x) our ability to recruit, train and retain talented employees to support our online advertising business, (xi) changes to the content or application of third-party policies that limit our ability to deliver, target, or measure the effectiveness of advertising, including changes by mobile operating system and browser providers such as Apple and Google; and (xii) the pricing of our advertising services.

On the network partner side, we provide network partners with software development kits (“SDKs”) to efficiently monetize their user traffic. Our platform connects to a massive user base through these SDK integrations. However, if we fail to grow or retain our SDK coverage, if our partners remove our SDK or restrict its functionality, or if integration quality suffers (e.g. due to privacy related restrictions), our access to attractive ad placement opportunities may decline. Reduced coverage can constrain our scale in key geographical regions and verticals, reduce ad performance for advertisers, and limit our ability to attract and retain advertisers.

On the advertiser side, we address the needs of customers across diverse industry verticals and performance objectives. Our advertisers’ requirements are not “one-size-fits-all”, and require vertical-specific features, workflows and tools. If we do not develop and maintain solutions tailored to these diverse needs, and keep pace with evolving vertical standards, we may experience advertiser attribution and slower revenue growth. In addition, advertisers frequently seek to collaborate with multiple advertising service providers and distribute advertisements across various channels. As a result, we face intense competition not only from online platforms and mobile service providers, but also from traditional advertising channels. Some of our competitors have greater resources, stronger online presence and more operating experience in advertising industry than we do. If we fail to deliver advertising services in an effective manner, or if advertisers believe that our platforms do not deliver sufficient returns compared to our competitors, they may decide to discontinue their collaboration with us. We cannot assure you that we will be able to retain existing advertisers, advertising agencies or network partners or attract new advertisers, advertising agencies or network partners. Although we have framework agreements with third-party advertising agencies, these advertising arrangements may be easily amended or terminated without incurring liabilities. If we fail to retain existing advertisers, advertising agencies and network partners or attract new advertisers, advertising agencies or network partners, or any of our current advertising methods or promotion activities become less effective, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.

Our advertising solutions rely on proprietary neural network engines whose performance depends on the volume, quality and freshness of training data—if the “data flywheel” slows or stalls, our ad delivery performance and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Our BIGO Ads platform leverages our proprietary neural network engines to predict user conversion likelihood, optimizes bids and budgets, and ranks ad inventory based on observed and inferred signals. The effective performance of our platform leverages a continuous “data flywheel”, in which higher ad request volumes, conversion feedback and high-quality attribution data enable model improvement, which in turn enhances ad placement performance and attracts additional demand and supply. Reductions in the volume, quality, timeliness or accessibility of training data, whether due to platform policy changes, evolving privacy regulations, increased use of device- or browser-level privacy controls, or fraudulent traffic, can impair model learning, reduce prediction accuracy and increase variance in ad placement outcomes. In addition, if our algorithms and systems do not improve at the pace we anticipate, or if their performance declines due to reduced or lower-quality training data, our advertisers may lower their budgets or pause their ad placements with us, our take-rates could come under pressure, and our revenue growth and margins could be adversely affected.

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More fundamentally, we require highly technical and complex software and hardware to store, retrieve, process and manage immense amounts of data. The software and hardware on which we rely may contain errors, bugs, vulnerabilities or defects, and our systems are subject to technical limitations that may compromise our ability to meet our objectives. Any error, bug, vulnerability or defect in the software and hardware on which we rely, or failures to identify and address them, may lead to adverse outcomes including bad algorithm and system performance, damage to our reputation, increased product engineering expenses, any of which could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. See also “—We use third-party services and technologies in connection with our business, and any disruption to the provision of these services and technologies to us could result in adverse publicity and a slowdown in the growth of our users, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.”

Changes in privacy laws, platform policies and industry frameworks could limit data collection, attribution and targeting and may adversely affect the performance and monetization of our advertising solutions.

Our advertising services depend on collecting, processing, and analyzing signals from our apps and third‑party properties to help advertisers acquire and retain users and to help publishers monetize. However, the use of data in connection with advertising activities have received increasing regulatory and industry attention. Apple’s App Tracking Transparency (ATT) framework requires user opt‑in before permitting cross‑app tracking and access to Identifier for Advertisers (IDFA). This framework, together with Apple’s related policy enforcement, has reduced the availability and quality of signals historically used for ad targeting, optimization, and measurement. Similarly, Google’s Privacy Sandbox initiatives for Android and Chrome introduce new APIs and limitations intended to protect user privacy while supporting advertising use cases. Changes to platform‑provided identifiers, attribution windows, measurement methodologies, and API access may reduce the quantity and granularity of data available to us and our customers, require product re‑engineering, increase compliance and integration costs, and impair campaign performance and advertiser return on ad spend. Moreover, end‑users can more easily implement privacy controls and tracking limitations, and advertisers, browsers, operating systems, and mediation partners may adopt more restrictive defaults over time. Our ability to adapt our products and data pipelines, maintain performance under these constraints, and secure the necessary user permissions is critical. If we are unable to do so in a timely and effective manner, our advertisers may reduce budgets or shift spend to competing channels, our publisher partners may perceive reduced yield, and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected.

We may be unable to prevent all forms of ad fraud and invalid traffic, which could harm the performance of our advertising solutions, damage our reputations, and adversely affect our results of operations.

Our advertising platform is exposed to potential fraudulent or malicious activity, including sophisticated bot-nets, click or install inflation, and other forms of invalid traffic. Bad actors may disrupt or manipulate the operation of our system or the systems and devices of our customers and their users in order to misappropriate information, generate fraudulent billings, stage cyberattacks or for other illicit purposes. They may also introduce malware through our platforms to commandeer or gain access to information of our customers or partners. BIGO Ads have partnered with industry professionals such as Pixalate, a global leader in ad fraud traffic monitoring, to combat invalid traffic, comprehensively enhance the governance of our ads ecosystem, strengthen authenticity verification, optimize risk filtering mechanisms and jointly promote a more transparent, trustworthy, and reliable mobile advertising environment. However, our efforts may not eliminate all fraud, may be circumvented, and may generate false positives that affect legitimate traffic, which are circumstances that our competitors may also encounter. Failure to detect or prevent invalid traffic can result in reduced advertising revenue for legitimate apps of our customers. Repeated or material incidents could also cause advertisers to pause or terminate their collaboration with us, harm our brand reputation, and adversely affect our results of operations.

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We generate a portion of our revenues from smart commerce solutions. If we fail to attract and retain merchants or to improve the functionality of our smart commerce solutions in a timely manner, our revenues, business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected.

We generate a portion of our revenues from smart commerce SaaS (software-as-a-service) offerings with Shopline, our smart commerce platform. Our ability to increase this revenue stream largely depends on the effectiveness of our efforts towards merchant acquisition and retention. Our ability to acquire and retain merchants can be influenced by multiple factors. For example, we compete for merchants with other smart commerce platforms. Some of our current or potential competitors have, and may in the future continue to have, greater resources and access to a larger merchant base. Our ability to acquire and retain merchants may also be negatively affected by reduced merchant spending levels, decreased consumer expenditure, and competitive pricing pressure. The level of merchant activities may be influenced by macroeconomic conditions that are beyond our control. Any disruptions to or worsening of the macroeconomic conditions in the markets where we operate, including as a result of increased tariffs or other government policies, may negatively affect consumer expenditure, merchants’ sales volume, and in turn their willingness to use our solutions. As our merchants may decide not to continue or renew their subscriptions after expiration for reasons out of our control, we cannot assure you that we will be able to sustain consistent merchant growth or maintain our existing merchant base. If we fail to attract new merchants and retain existing merchants, our revenues will be adversely affected.

Driven by constant technology innovations, the smart commerce industry is rapidly evolving, as merchants continually adjust to changing customer needs. Our business growth depends on our ability to understand and predict merchant demands and provide smart commerce services that meet their expectations. However, we cannot assure you that we will be able to accurately identify and address merchants’ increasing and diversifying demands. Even if we do, the development of smart commerce technologies requires significant investments, and we may not have sufficient resource or financing to improve the functionality of our offerings. If we fail to enhance and update our smart commerce platforms and related solutions in a timely manner, or at all, our revenues, business, financial condition and results of operations could be adversely affected.

Changes in global or regional economic or social conditions, as well as changes in government policies, could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We have businesses in diverse global markets and are subject to risks associated with doing business internationally. Our business, financial condition and results of operations may be influenced to a significant degree by economic and social conditions, and government policies related to the markets where we operate. A general slowdown in the global economy, increased volatility, or inflation could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations. Changes in consumer behavior due to adverse economic conditions may also negatively impact us as such developments could lead to a decrease in consumer spending and reduction in demand for our products and services, which may adversely affect our business, financial condition, results of operation or competitive position.

The economies in different markets generally differ in many respects, including the level of government involvement, level of development, growth rate, regulation of foreign exchange, government policy on public order and allocation of resources. In some of the markets where we operate, governments continue to play a significant role in regulating industry development by imposing industrial policies. Some governments also exercise significant discretion over the economic growth and public order in their respective jurisdictions through allocating resources, controlling payment of foreign currency-denominated obligations, setting monetary policies, and providing preferential treatment to particular industries or companies. Governmental actions to manage inflation and other policies and regulations have often involved, among other measures, price regulations, currency devaluations, capital management and limits on imports. Our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected by changes in government policies or regulations, such as exchange rates and exchange regulation policies, inflation rates, interest rates, tariff and inflation management policies, price management policies, import duties and restrictions, liquidity of domestic capital and lending markets, electricity rationing tax policies, including royalty, tax increases and retroactive tax claims, and other political, diplomatic, social and economic developments in or affecting the markets where we operate.

Economic growth in the various markets where we operate has been uneven, both geographically and among various sectors of the economy. Any adverse changes in economic conditions in the markets where we operate or neighboring regions, or in the policies of the governments or of the laws and regulations in each respective market could have a material adverse effect on the overall economic growth of those markets. Such developments could adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations, lead to a reduction in demand for our products and services, and adversely affect our competitive position.

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We face risks related to geopolitical and social instability, as well as international trade and investment restrictions, which could increase our costs, disrupt our operations and adversely impact our business.

Some of the markets where we operate have experienced, and may in the future experience, geopolitical and social instability, including strikes, demonstrations, protests, marches, other types of civil disorder, war or armed conflict, refugee migration or other types of unrests. For example, the ongoing geopolitical tensions related to the Russia-Ukraine conflict, the Hamas-Israel conflict, the conflict in the Persian Gulf and surrounding areas as far west as Israel and Lebanon, and the restrictions at various times on shipping through the strait of Hormuz and the Red Sea have resulted in significant disruptions to supply chains, logistics, and business activities globally. We cannot predict the duration or outcome of these events and actions or whether future developments would have any material adverse impact on our business. While we operate in a number of jurisdictions which limit our exposure to disruptions in any single market, the above and other instabilities and any adverse changes in the political environment could increase our costs, increase our exposure to legal and business risks, disrupt our operations or the business activities of our ecosystem participants, or affect our ability to expand or retain our user base.

Moreover, international political tensions have escalated and continue to subject us to uncertainties with respect to a wide range of issues. In recent years, the U.S. government has implemented policies restricting international trade and investment, such as tariffs, export controls, economic or trade sanctions, restrictions on outbound investment, and foreign investment filing and approval requirements. These actions may materially and adversely affect international trade, global financial markets, and the stability of the global economic condition. In addition, international political tensions have escalated and continue to be subject to uncertainties with respect to a wide range of issues. For example, sanctions and export control measures are unilaterally imposed by the U.S. or other jurisdictions from time to time. On September 29, 2025, the U.S. Department of Commerce’s Bureau of Industry and Security (BIS) issued an immediately effective interim final rule that, among others, extends Entity List and Military End-User List restrictions to entities that are 50% or more owned, directly or indirectly, by parties designated on those lists. This rule is currently suspended for one year. However, if implemented, these measures are expected to have significant impact on the targeted countries, markets and/or entities, making compliance more complicated and time-consuming and increasing the risk of inadvertent omissions. As we work with a wide range of business partners in different countries in the world, should any of our major business partners become subject to sanctions or restrictions by the U.S. or other jurisdictions, our business may be adversely affected.

Furthermore, escalating tensions between the United States and China could lead to additional U.S. policies targeting China-associated companies, potentially including delisting from U.S. stock exchanges. Although we are a global company with limited operations in China, we cannot rule out the possibility of being affected by these U.S. policies, given the uncertainties associated with such policies and their implementation and the broad discretion of U.S. authorities, including the potential for misperceptions.

Our business may be subject to restrictions imposed by the governments on access to our services and on foreign investments, which could result in loss of users and increased compliance costs.

Governments or government agencies in any of the markets where we operate could censor, ban or block access to our services, mobile applications, platforms and/or the internet generally for various reasons, including political tensions and wars between countries, content restrictions, national security, data protection or regulatory concerns. For example, the Indian government has previously blocked our apps in the local market. Users generally need to access the internet and/or app stores to access, download or use our services and mobile applications. If governments either directly or indirectly block, limit or otherwise restrict us from publishing or making available our products and services to users, block, limit or restrict our users from accessing our products, services or mobile applications, prevent us from onboarding new users, prevent data transfers to or from certain markets or services, or take similar actions against us, our business could be negatively impacted, and we could experience loss or slower growth of our user base, financial loss, and our reputation may be adversely affected. Further, any government actions taken against our service providers, partners or other third-party intermediaries on which our business relies could cause our products and services to become unavailable for extended periods of time or even indefinitely.

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Governments or government agencies may take legislative, executive, administrative or other measures or implement policies to regulate foreign investments, including applying heightened scrutiny and imposing additional requirements, prohibitions and restrictions on investments made by companies that meet certain criteria. Companies may be evaluated based on (i) their place of incorporation or country of origin, (ii) the place of incorporation, country of origin, or nationality of their shareholders and/or beneficial owners, and (iii) where the companies have employees or service providers, store data or develop or provide their products and services. Any changes in foreign investment restrictions in the markets where we operate may affect our ability to operate and maintain our business in these markets. In the event of such restrictions, we may face additional legal and regulatory compliance costs and risks, lose investments we have made and/or exit such markets, our users may develop a negative perception of us, and our business, financial condition and results of operations could be negatively affected.

Our business is subject to complex and evolving laws and regulations across the globe regarding cybersecurity, information security, privacy and data protection. Many of these laws and regulations are subject to change and uncertain interpretation, and any failure or perceived failure to comply with these laws and regulations could result in claims, changes to our business practices, negative publicity, legal proceedings, increased cost of operations, or declines in user growth or engagement, or otherwise harm our business.

We operate in several key markets across the globe. Our business generates and processes a large quantity of data. We face risks inherent in handling and protecting large volume of data. In particular, we face a number of challenges relating to data from transactions and other activities on our platforms, including:

In general, we expect that data security and data protection compliance will receive greater attention and focus from regulators globally, as well as attract continued or greater public scrutiny and attention going forward, which could increase our compliance costs and subject us to heightened risks and challenges associated with data security and protection. If we are unable to manage these risks, we could become subject to penalties, including fines, suspension of business and revocation of required licenses, and our reputation and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

Legal developments in Europe have created compliance uncertainty regarding the processing of personal data. For example, the General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR, which came into application in the European Union, or EU, on May 25, 2018, applies to all of our activities conducted from an establishment in the EU or related to products and services that we offer to EU users. We may be considered in violation of the GDPR and thus be required to adopt additional measures in the future. If we fail to comply with the requirements stipulated by the GDPR in a timely manner, or at all, we may be subject to significant penalties and fines, which may in turn adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition and operating results. The privacy requirements and expectations created by the GDPR are stricter than certain other regions. On December 22, 2023, the regulation on harmonized rules on fair access to and use of data, officially known as the EU’s Data Act (Regulation (EU) 2023/2854), was published in the EU’s Official Journal. This regulation sets up new rules on who can access and use data generated in the EU across all economic sectors. It lays down rules on business-to-business and business-to-customer data access, establishes a ban on unfair contractual terms on data sharing, and introduce restrictions to non-EU governmental access and international transfers of non-personal data by requiring providers of data processing services to take technical, organizational and legal measures to prevent unlawful access and transfers.

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Additionally, California enacted legislation that has been dubbed the first “GDPR-like” law in the United States. Known as the California Consumer Privacy Act, it created new individual privacy rights for consumers (as that word is broadly defined in the law) and places increased privacy and security obligations on entities handling personal data of consumers or households. The California Consumer Privacy Act, which came into effect on January 1, 2020, requires covered companies to provide new disclosures to California consumers, and provides such consumers new ways to opt-out of certain sales of personal information. The California Consumer Privacy Act provides for civil penalties for violations, as well as a private right of action for data breaches that is expected to increase data breach litigation. Furthermore, the enactment of the California Consumer Privacy Act and other state privacy laws has prompted a wave of similar legislative developments in other states in the United States, which has resulted in a patchwork of overlapping but different state laws, with potentially greater penalties and more rigorous compliance requirements relevant to our business. While state laws continue to change rapidly, there has also been discussion in U.S. Congress of a new comprehensive federal data protection law. Such state laws and potential federal laws may increase our compliance costs and potential liability.

On February 28, 2024, the Biden administration issued Executive Order 14117 on “Preventing Access to Americans’ Bulk Sensitive Personal Data and United States Government-Related Data by Countries of Concern.” The order seeks to prohibit and restrict certain data transactions involving the transfer of U.S. sensitive personal data between U.S. persons and covered countries of concern or covered persons. Covered countries of concern are defined to include China (including Hong Kong and Macau), Cuba, Iran, North Korea, Russia and Venezuela, and covered persons are defined to include companies owned by, controlled by or subject to the jurisdiction or direction of a country of concern. Since we conduct a portion of our operations in China, we cannot assure you that we will not be deemed to be a covered person. To the extent that we become subject to the order, we may incur substantial costs to ensure our compliance. Failure to comply with the order may result in significant fines and regulatory investigations, and could materially and adversely affect our business operations.

Under Personal Data Protection Act 2012 of Singapore, as amended from time to time, when an organization collects personal data, it must procure the individual’s consent to the collection, use and disclosure of his/her personal data. Individuals have clearly defined rights, such as the right to access their personal data, request information on how their personal data has been used, and correct any inaccuracies in the personal data held by the organization. The organization should designate a Data Protection Officer for this purpose. Indonesia, Vietnam and Malaysia also enacted legislation providing protection on personal data, the general principles of which are substantially similar. For details, see “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulations in Multiple Jurisdictions Where We Operate—Regulations on Data Privacy and Protection.” Furthermore, we may also be subject to the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 of India (the “DPDP Act”), which came into effect in phases starting from November 13, 2025, together with the Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025. The DPDP Act imposes obligations on data fiduciaries, including requirements to obtain free, specific, informed, and unconditional consent from data principals for processing their personal data, to implement reasonable security safeguards, to notify personal data breaches to the regulatory authority and affected principals, and to comply with cross-border data transfer restrictions. Violations may result in significant penalties. The earlier Information Technology Act 2000 remains partially in force during a transition period (Section 43A thereof is scheduled for repeal 18 months after November 13, 2025), and its provisions on criminal punishment for unauthorized disclosure of personal information (Section 72A) and safe harbor for intermediaries (Section 79) may continue to apply until fully superseded. As our global expansion evolves, we may incur additional costs for the compliance with these legislations and be exposed to additional risks and challenges in our ordinary course of business. Also, we may, from time to time, be subject to data protection regulations from additional jurisdictions, which may impose additional and more stringent requirements.

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For our operations in mainland China, the regulatory and enforcement regime of mainland China with regard to data security and data protection is evolving and may be subject to different interpretations or significant changes. Moreover, different mainland China regulatory bodies, including the Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress, the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, or the MIIT, the CAC, the Ministry of Public Security and the State Administration for Market Regulation, or the SAMR, have enforced data privacy and protections laws and regulations with varying standards and applications. See “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulations in Multiple Jurisdictions Where We Operate—Regulations on Data Privacy and Protection—Data and Privacy Protection—mainland China” and “Item 4. Information on the Company—B. Business Overview—Regulations in Multiple Jurisdictions Where We Operate—Regulations on Overseas Listing by Domestic Companies—mainland China.” Many of the data-related legislations of mainland China are relatively new and certain concepts thereunder remain subject to interpretation by the regulators. If any data that we possess belongs to data categories that are subject to heightened scrutiny, we may be required to adopt stricter measures for protection and management of such data. In general, compliance with the existing laws and regulations of mainland China, as well as additional laws and regulations that mainland China regulatory bodies may enact in the future, related to data security and personal information protection, may be costly and result in additional expenses to us, and subject us to negative publicity, which could harm our reputation and business operations. There are also uncertainties with respect to how such laws and regulations will be implemented and interpreted in practice.

We make statements about our use and disclosure of personally identifiable information through our privacy policy, information provided on our internet platform and press statements. Any failure by us to comply with these public statements or with international privacy-related or data protection laws and regulations could result in proceedings against us by governmental entities or others. In addition to reputational impacts, penalties could include ongoing audit requirements and significant legal liability. None of the data security measures can provide absolute security, and losses or unauthorized access to or releases of confidential information, in particular personally identifiable information, may still occur, which could materially and adversely affect our reputation, financial condition and operating results.

From time to time, concerns may be expressed about whether our products, services, or processes compromise the privacy of users, customers, and others. Concerns about our practices with regard to the collection, use, disclosure, or security of personally identifiable information or other privacy related matters, even if unfounded, could damage our reputation and adversely affect our operating results.

We face competition in several major aspects of our business. If we fail to compete effectively, we may lose users, advertisers and merchants which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We face competition in several major aspects of our business in each market where we operate, particularly from companies that provide social media, advertising and smart commerce solution services. Some of our competitors may have longer operating histories, significantly larger user bases, more established brand recognition, and significantly greater financial, technical and marketing resources than we do, and in turn may have an advantage in attracting and retaining users, merchants and advertisers. In addition, competitors in some areas of our business may be able to develop products and services better received by users or merchants, or may be able to respond more quickly and effectively than we can to new or evolving opportunities, technologies, regulations or user trends. Some competitors may be able to leverage a stronger financial position to adopt more aggressive pricing policies and offer more attractive terms to our users, merchants or business partners.

The development of AI technologies may lower the barrier of entry and enable competitors to potentially replicate or improve upon the kind of offerings we provide. Widespread adoption of agentic AI technologies could also reduce demand for our offerings. While we believe we have developed core competitive strengths that are hard to be disrupted or displaced by AI, we cannot assure you that our business will not be adversely affected by the development of AI. We are integrating AI into our businesses. However, we may not adopt AI as quickly or effectively as we expect, and our competitors may adopt AI more quickly or effectively than we do. For details, see “—We may not be successful in adopting, implementing or incorporating new technologies, such as artificial intelligence, into our product offerings.”

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Our competitors primarily include global short video platforms such as TikTok, and certain regional live streaming platforms. We also compete with other independent advertising technologies platforms such as AppLovin and Unity, which provide marketing and monetization solutions. We also face competition from companies that provide smart commerce solutions for merchants, such as Shopify. We may offer new products and services, develop new features and functionality of our platforms or enhance existing ones, which may subject us to increased or additional competition. We may also periodically change or remove new features and functionality, optimize our operational efficiency and increase monetization efforts, which may not be well received and lead to a decrease in the number of users on our platforms. We may also face potential protectionist policies, political measures or regulatory challenges that are more supportive of local players in such markets, which may, among other things, hinder our ability to compete effectively in such markets.

If we are not able to effectively compete in any of our lines of business, our business, results of operations and financial condition could be negatively impacted. We may be required to spend additional resources to further increase our brand recognition and promote our products and services, and such additional spending could adversely affect our profitability. Furthermore, we are currently involved in certain legal disputes with our competitors. We do not believe our competitors’ claims against us are of merit or material. However, these disputes and potential future disputes with competitors may result in negative publicity to us, regardless of the veracity or outcome of the disputes. They may harm our reputation or brand image and in turn stall the growth of or even lead to reductions in the number of our users, advertisers, and merchants in the affected markets. Any measures we take in response to such disputes may be expensive, time-consuming and disruptive to our operations and divert our management’s attention.

Our competitors may unilaterally decide to adopt a wide range of measures targeted at us, including possibly designing their products to negatively impact our operations, such as sending virus-like programs to attack elements of our platforms. Some competitors may also make their applications incompatible with ours, effectively requiring users to either stop using our competitors’ products or uninstall our products, leading to a reduction in our number of users.

We use third-party services and technologies in connection with our business, and any disruption to the provision of these services and technologies to us could result in adverse publicity and a slowdown in the growth of our users, which could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Our business depends upon services provided by, and relationships with, third parties. For example, we primarily rely on third-party application distribution channels, such as the iOS App Store and the Google Play Store, to allow users to download and access our applications and games. In the past, some of our apps have been temporarily taken down from some of these distribution channels. If our third-party distribution channels voluntarily or involuntarily suspend their services to us, including taking down or removing our applications in response to government actions or other legal actions or pursuant to their own policies, and we are unable to arrange for alternative measures in a timely manner or at all, our users will have difficulties accessing our applications or making payments for our products and services. Consequently, we may lose users temporarily or permanently, and our business and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected. Additionally, if we are unable to retain or attract popular talents such as performers, channel managers, professional game players, commentators and hosts for our live streaming platform or if these talents cannot draw fans or participants, our results of operations may be adversely affected. Also, if channel owners are unable to reach or maintain mutually satisfactory cooperation arrangements with the performers on their channels on our live streaming platform, we may lose popular performers and our business and operations may be adversely affected. Furthermore, if we are unable to obtain or retain rights to host popular online games or popular in-game virtual items, or if we are required to share a bigger portion of our revenues with third-party game developers, we could be required to devote greater resources and time to obtain hosting rights for new games and applications from other parties, and our results of operations may be impacted. In addition, some third-party software we use in our operations are currently publicly available without charge. If the owner of any such software decides to charge users or no longer makes the software publicly available, we may need to incur significant cost to license the software, find replacement software or develop alternative software. If we are unable to find or develop replacement software at a reasonable cost, or at all, our business and operations may be adversely affected.

Some of the services offered by us run on a complex network of servers located in and maintained by third-party data centers and our overall network relies on broadband connections provided by third-party operators. We expect this dependence on third parties to continue. The networks maintained and services provided by such third parties are vulnerable to damage or interruption, which could impact our results of operations. See “—System failure, interruptions and downtime can result in adverse publicity for our products and result in net revenue losses, a slowdown in the growth of our registered user accounts and a decrease in the number of our active users. If any of these system disruptions occurs, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.”

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With respect to our advertising business, our BIGO Ads platform relies on our backend systems and on third-party providers. Third-party service interruptions or performance issues—whether due to cyberattacks, capacity constraints, configuration errors, or force-majeure events—can cause interruptions to our services, impair advertiser relationships, and adversely affect our business operations. If third-party providers materially change their pricing, terms or service availability, we may not be able to replace them on commercially reasonable terms or in a timely manner. In addition, we generate a majority of our online advertising revenues through agreements entered into with various third-party advertising agencies that represent advertisers. We do not have long-term cooperation agreements or exclusive arrangements with these agencies and they may elect to direct business opportunities to other advertising service providers. If we fail to retain and enhance our business relationships with these third-party advertising agencies, we may suffer from a loss of advertisers and our business and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

In addition, we sell a significant portion of our products and services through third-party online payment systems, and we rely on global banking and financial services to process our operational cashflows. If any third-party online payment system suffers from security breaches, users may lose confidence in such payment systems and refrain from purchasing our virtual items online, in which case our results of operations would be negatively impacted. If any third-party online payment system or global bank voluntarily or involuntarily suspends its services to us, it may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations. See “—The security of operations of, and fees charged by, third-party online payment platforms may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.” Failure to timely collect our receivables from these third parties whose billing and payment systems we use and third-party payment processors may adversely affect our cash flows. Our third-party payment processors may from time to time experience cash flow difficulties. Consequently, they may delay their payments to us or fail to pay us at all. Any delay in payment or inability of current or potential third-party payment processors to pay us may significantly harm our cash flow and results of operations.

We exercise no control over the third parties with whom we have business arrangements. If such third parties increase their prices, fail to provide their services effectively, terminate their service or agreements or discontinue their relationships with us, we could suffer service interruptions, reduced revenues or increased costs, any of which may have a material adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We may not be successful in adopting, implementing or incorporating new technologies, such as artificial intelligence, into our product offerings.

Technology is essential to our business success. We have integrated artificial intelligence, or AI, and data analytics into all critical aspects of our services and broader business operations. However, new technologies may evolve quickly, with AI technologies undergoing significant development recently. Our future success depends in part on our ability to adapt to trends and to innovate. If we do not adapt to, and appropriately allocate our resources among, emerging technologies, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be adversely affected. To adopt a new technology, we must invest financial resources and management attention. We may invest significant resources in a new offering, which could prove unsuccessful or prevent us from directing these resources towards other opportunities. We may never recover the often-substantial up-front costs of developing and adopting emerging technologies, or recover the opportunity cost of diverting management and financial resources. Furthermore, our competitors may adapt an emerging technology more quickly or effectively than we do.

In addition, our AI-related services may subject us to new or enhanced regulatory requirements, including additional governmental or regulatory scrutiny. The regulations governing AI technologies are relatively new and rapidly evolving. A number of jurisdictions where we operate have implemented new regulations relating to AI technologies, such as the EU Artificial Intelligence Act signed by European Union legislators in June 2024. The interpretation and implementation of the existing laws also remain uncertain with respect to the application of AI. We may not be able to identify all new regulations or new interpretation and implementation of existing regulations that are applicable to our use of AI and other technologies across the multiple jurisdictions where we operate, or do so in a timely manner. Nor can we assure you that we can always ensure compliance with these evolving regulations, or that we will not incur significant expenses in doing so. In addition, although we have established comprehensive content moderation systems to closely monitor any compliance issues under the applicable laws and regulations, we cannot assure you that we will not incur liabilities due to our current or future adoption of AI and other technologies. Failure to comply with applicable laws and regulations could adversely affect our business, reputation, financial condition and results of operations.

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We have granted employee stock awards in the past and expect to continue to do so in the future. We recognize share-based compensation expenses in our consolidated statements of operations in accordance with the relevant rules under U.S. GAAP, which have had and may continue to have a material and adverse effect on our results of operations.

We have adopted several share incentive plans and granted share-based compensation awards pursuant to the plans, including share options, restricted shares and restricted share units, to various employees, key personnel and other non-employees to incentivize performance and align their interests with ours. As of March 31, 2026, options to purchase 8,074,500 Class A common shares, 1,308,825 restricted shares and 35,152,532 restricted share units were outstanding under our share incentive plans. As a result of these grants and potential future grants, we had incurred in the past and expect to continue to incur significant share-based compensation expenses in the future. The amount of these expenses is based on the fair value of the share-based awards. We account for compensation costs for certain share-based compensation awards granted in the past using a graded-vesting method and recognize expenses in our consolidated statements of operations in accordance with the relevant rules under U.S. GAAP. The expenses associated with share-based compensation materially increased our net losses or reduced our net income in the past, and may reduce our net income in the future. In addition, any additional securities issued under share-based compensation schemes will dilute the ownership interests of our shareholders, including holders of our ADSs. However, if we limit the scope of the share-based compensation schemes, we may not be able to attract or retain key personnel who expect to be compensated by options, restricted shares or restricted share units.

The number of mobile active users we have may fluctuate and we may fail to attract more paying users, which may materially and adversely affect our revenues growth, results of operations and financial condition.

The number of our mobile monthly active users across various platforms of ours may fluctuate significantly from time to time. The number of our mobile monthly active users may vary significantly from quarter to quarter due to a variety of factors, including, but not limited to, (i) overall consumer demand for online entertainment services such as live streaming; (ii) our ability to attract and attain users; (iii) seasonality in activity level of our users; (iv) our spending on sales and marketing and other operating activities to grow and expand our operations; (v) timing of promotional and marketing activities; (vi) change of our business strategy, such as launching new services or products, or expanding into new markets, or discontinuing services in certain markets, or discontinuing certain products; (vii) competitors’ entry into or exiting from our markets; (viii) any disruption to the provision of third-party services and technologies in connection with our operations, such as internet network, third-party application distribution channels, or payment channels; and (ix) government regulations, policies, actions or restrictions globally and in markets where we operate. If we are unable to attract new users and retain them as active users and convert non-paying active users into paying users, the numbers of our active users and paying users may further fluctuate and our growth prospects, results of operations and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

We may not be able to keep our users highly engaged, which may reduce our monetization opportunities and materially and adversely affect our revenues, profitability and prospects.

Our success depends on our ability to maintain and grow our user base and keep our users highly engaged. In order to attract and retain users and remain competitive, we must continue to innovate our products and services, implement new technologies and functionalities and improve the features of our platforms in order to entice users to use our products and services more frequently and for longer durations.

The internet industry is characterized by constant changes, including rapid technological evolution, continual shifts in customer demands, frequent introductions of new products and services and constant emergence of new industry standards and practices. Thus our success will depend, in part, on our ability to respond to these changes on a cost-effective and timely basis; failure to do so may cause our user base to shrink and user engagement level to decline and our results of operations would be materially and adversely affected. For example, our plan to more broadly support mobile-live broadcasting across our live streaming platform and retain the ability to offer high quality delivery of voice and video data may cause us to incur significant additional costs and may not succeed.

Due to the intensified competitions among audio and video-based social entertainment platforms, users may leave us for competitors’ platforms more quickly than in other online sectors. A decrease in the number of our active users may reduce the diversity and vibrancy of our platforms’ online ecosystem and affect our user-generated channels, which may in turn reduce our monetization opportunities and have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

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We cannot assure you that our platforms will continue to be sufficiently popular with our users to offset the costs incurred to operate and expand it. Our sales and marketing expenses may significantly increase in the future, which could have an adverse effect on our results of operations. Failure to maintain or grow our user base in a cost-effective manner, or at all, and keep our users highly engaged would materially and negatively affect our results of operations.

Spammers and malicious applications may affect user experience, which could reduce our ability to attract users and advertisers and materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

Spammers may use our platforms to send targeted and untargeted spam messages to users, which may affect user experience. As a result, our users may use our products and services less or stop using them altogether. In spamming activities, spammers typically create multiple user accounts for the purpose of sending spam messages. Although we attempt to identify and delete accounts created for spamming purposes, we may not be able to effectively eliminate all spam messages from our platforms in a timely fashion. Any spamming activities could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

System failure, interruptions and downtime can result in adverse publicity for our products and result in net revenue losses, a slowdown in the growth of our registered user accounts and a decrease in the number of our active users. If any of these system disruptions occurs, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

We rely on technology and internet infrastructure, data center and cloud service providers, and telecommunication networks in the markets where we operate. Although we seek to reduce the possibility of disruptions or other outages, our services may be disrupted by problems with our own technology and system, such as malfunctions in our software or other facilities and network overload. Our systems may be vulnerable to damage or interruption from telecommunication failures, power loss, computer attacks or viruses, earthquakes, floods, fires, terrorist attacks, geopolitical events, and similar events. We have experienced system failures for some operations and we have subsequently updated our system. However, we cannot assure you that there will be no similar technical failures in the future. Parts of our system are not fully redundant, and our disaster recovery planning may not be sufficient for all eventualities. Despite any precaution we may take, the occurrence of a natural disaster or other unanticipated problems at our hosting facilities could result in lengthy interruptions in the availability of our products and services. Any interruption in the ability of our users to use our products and services could reduce our future revenues, harm our future profits, subject us to regulatory scrutiny and lead users to seek alternative forms of online social interactions.

Our servers that process user payments experience some downtime on a regular basis, which may negatively affect our brand and user perception of the reliability of our systems. Any scheduled or unscheduled interruption in the ability of users to use our payment systems could result in an immediate, and possibly substantial, disruption to our business operations, loss of revenues, and damage to our reputation. Furthermore, in the event of disruptions or failures of, or other problems with, the fixed telecommunications networks of telecommunications operators, or if such operators otherwise fail to provide such services, we cannot assure you that these operators and providers will not take measures that could degrade or disrupt, as well as restrict or prohibit the use of their lines for our businesses.

Our users may use our products or services for critical transactions and communications, especially business communications. As a result, any system failures could result in damage to such users’ businesses. These users could seek significant compensation from us for their losses. Even if unsuccessful, this type of claim would likely be time consuming and costly for us to address.

We have limited control over the prices of the services provided by telecommunication service providers and may have limited access to alternative networks or services. If the prices we pay for telecommunications and internet services rise significantly, our results of operations may be materially and adversely affected. Furthermore, if internet access fees or other charges to internet users increase, our user traffic may decline and our business may be harmed.

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The respective number of our registered user accounts, active users and paying users may overstate the number of unique individuals who register to use our products and services, log on to our platforms, purchase virtual items or other products and services on our platforms, respectively, and may therefore lead to an inaccurate interpretation of our average revenue per paying user metric and of our business operations by our management and by investors, and may affect advertisers’ decisions on the amount spent on advertising with us.

While BIGO users who make fund withdrawal requests are required to provide full name, date of birth and identity information, users are otherwise not required or obligated to undergo real-name verification under the currently valid regulations. Therefore, we cannot and do not track the number of unique paying users. Instead, we track the number of registered user accounts, active users and paying users. We calculate certain operating metrics in the following ways: (a) the number of registered user accounts is the cumulative number of accounts on our social entertainment platforms that, by the end of the relevant period, had log-on activity at least once after registration, (b) the number of active users is measured by the number of registered user accounts that have had log-on activities at least once during the relevant period, and (c) the number of paying users is measured by the number of registered user accounts that have purchased virtual items or other products and services on our platforms at least once during the relevant period. The actual number of unique individual users, however, is likely to be lower than that of registered user accounts, active users and paying users, potentially significantly, for three primary reasons:

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In addition, we may be unable to track whether we are successfully converting registered users or active users into paying users since we do not track the number of unique individuals or operate our platforms on a real-name basis. If the growth in the number of our registered user accounts, active users or paying users is lower than the actual growth in the number of unique individual registered, active or paying users, our user engagement level, sales and our business may not grow as quickly as we expect, and advertisers may reduce the amount spent on advertising with us, which may harm our business, financial condition and results of operations. In addition, such overstatement may cause inaccurate evaluation of our business operations by our management and by investors, which may also materially and adversely affect our business and results of operations.

Concerns about collection and use of personal data could damage our reputation and deter current and potential users from using our products and services, which could lead to lower revenues.

Concerns about our practices with regard to the collection, use or disclosure of personal information or other privacy-related matters, even if unfounded, could damage our reputation and operating results. We apply strict management and protection for any information provided by users and, under our privacy policy, without our users’ prior consent, we will not provide any of our users’ personal information to any unrelated third party. While we strive to comply with our privacy guidelines as well as all applicable data protection laws and regulations, any failure or perceived failure to comply may result in proceedings or actions against us by government entities or others, and could damage our reputation. User and regulatory attitudes towards privacy are evolving, and future regulatory or user concerns about the extent to which personal information is used or shared with advertisers or others may adversely affect our ability to share certain data with advertisers, which may limit certain methods of targeted advertising. Concerns about the security of personal data could also lead to a decline in general internet usage, which could lead to lower registered, active or paying user numbers on our platforms. A significant reduction in registered, active or paying user numbers could lead to lower revenues, which could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition and results of operations.

The security of operations of, and fees charged by, third-party online payment platforms may have a material adverse effect on our business and results of operations.

Currently, we sell almost all of our products and services to our users through third-party online payment systems. In all these online payment transactions, secured transmission of confidential information such as customers’ credit card numbers and personal information over public networks is essential to maintain consumer confidence.

We do not have control over the security measures of our third-party online payment vendors, and security breaches of the online payment systems that we use could expose us to litigation and possible liability for failing to secure confidential customer information and could, among other things, damage our reputation and the perceived security of all of the online payment systems that we use. If a well-publicized internet or mobile network security breach were to occur, users concerned about the security of their online financial transactions may become reluctant to purchase our virtual items even if the publicized breach did not involve payment systems or methods used by us. In addition, there may be billing software errors that would damage customer confidence in these online payment systems. If any of the above were to occur and damage our reputation or the perceived security of the online payment systems we use, we may lose paying users and users may be discouraged from purchasing our services, which may have a material adverse effect on our business.

In addition, there are currently only a limited number of third-party online payment systems. If any of these major payment systems decides to cease to provide services to us, or significantly increase the percentage they charge us for using their payment systems for our virtual items and other services, our results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

Our strategic alliances, investments or acquisitions may have a material and adverse effect on our business, reputation and results of operations. There can be no assurance that the anticipated benefits of our strategic alliances, investments or acquisitions could be realized

We may enter into strategic alliances, including joint ventures or minority equity investments, with various third parties to further our business purpose from time to time. These alliances could subject us to a number of risks, including risks associated with sharing proprietary information, non-performance by the third party and increased expenses in establishing new strategic alliances, any of which may materially and adversely affect our business. We may have limited ability to monitor or control the actions of these third parties and, to the extent any of these strategic third parties suffers negative publicity or harm to their reputation from events relating to their business, we may also suffer negative publicity or harm to our reputation by virtue of our association with any such third party.

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In addition, if appropriate opportunities arise, we may acquire and/or invest in additional assets, products, technologies or businesses that are complementary to our existing business. Past and future acquisitions and the subsequent integration of new assets and businesses into our own require significant attention from our management and could result in a diversion of resources from our existing business, which in turn could have an adverse effect on our business operations. The integration of previously independent businesses is a complex, costly and time-consuming process, and may result in material unanticipated problems, expenses, liabilities, competitive responses, and diversion of management’s attention.

Also, there can be no assurance that we can achieve the intended objectives or anticipated benefits by such strategic investments or acquisitions. Acquired assets or businesses may not generate the financial results we expect. Acquisitions could result in the use of substantial amounts of cash, potentially dilutive issuances of equity securities, the occurrence of significant goodwill impairment charges, amortization expenses for other intangible assets, exposure to potential unknown liabilities of the acquired business and decrease in our gross and net margins as a result of the consolidation of the financial results of the acquired business. To the extent that significant amortization expenses related to intangible assets are applicable, we are required to test our intangible assets, goodwill and our strategic investments for impairment annually or more frequently whenever events or changes indicate that they may be impaired. We may also incur investment loss or impairment charges to acquired businesses and assets. If our strategic investments are implemented ineffectively or impacted by unforeseen negative economic or market conditions or other factors, we may not realize the full anticipated benefits of the investments. Our failure to meet the challenges involved in realizing the anticipated benefits of the strategic investments could cause an interruption of, or a loss of momentum in, our activities and could adversely affect our results of operations.

Moreover, the costs of identifying and consummating acquisitions may be significant. In addition to possible shareholders’ approval, we may also have to obtain approvals and licenses from relevant government authorities for the acquisitions and to comply with any applicable laws and regulations, which could result in increased delay and costs. Furthermore, we may be subject to negative public perception as a result of those strategic investments or acquisition and be viewed negatively by our users, investors and financial markets in general. The market value of our investments or acquisitions may also fluctuate, particularly in volatile markets, which may adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition.

We may not be able to adequately protect our intellectual property or prevent unauthorized use or misappropriation of our data and technology, which could harm our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We regard our trademarks, service marks, patents, domain names, trade secrets, proprietary technologies and similar intellectual property as critical to our success, and we rely on trademark and patent law, trade secret protection and confidentiality and license agreements with our employees and others to protect our proprietary rights. However, the steps we take to obtain, maintain, protect and enforce our intellectual property rights may be inadequate. We may not be able to detect unauthorized use of our intellectual property rights. If we fail to protect our intellectual property rights adequately, our competitors may gain access to our proprietary technology and develop and commercialize substantially identical products, services or technologies, and our business, financial condition, results of operations or prospects may be harmed. In addition, defending our intellectual property rights may entail significant expense.

We operate in many different markets. It is often difficult to obtain, maintain and enforce intellectual property rights in certain developing countries as compared with developed countries with more robust legal systems. Patents, trademarks and service marks may be invalidated, circumvented, or challenged. Trade secrets are difficult to protect, and our trade secrets may be leaked or otherwise become known or be independently discovered by others. Moreover, no assurance can be given that confidential agreements will be effective in controlling access to, distribution, use, misuse, misappropriation, reverse engineering or disclosure of our proprietary information, know-how and trade secrets. Further, these agreements may not prevent our competitors from independently developing technologies that are substantially equivalent or superior to our platform capabilities. Confidentiality agreements may be breached, and we may not have adequate remedies for any breach. Even where adequate, relevant laws exist, it may not be possible to obtain swift and equitable enforcement of such laws, or to obtain enforcement of a court judgment or an arbitration award delivered in another jurisdiction, and accordingly, we may not be able to effectively protect our intellectual property rights or enforce agreements in certain jurisdictions. Policing any unauthorized use of our intellectual property is difficult and costly and the steps we have taken may be inadequate to prevent the misappropriation of our technologies. Given the potential cost, effort, risks and downsides of obtaining patent protection, in some cases we have not and do not plan to apply for patents or other forms of formal intellectual property protection for certain key technologies. If some of these technologies are later proven to be important to our business and are used by third parties without our authorization, especially for commercial purposes, our business and competitive position may be harmed. Patent, trademark, copyright, and trade secret protection may not be available to us in every country in which our platforms are or become available. For example, as we have expanded our business in multiple regions across the globe, we may be unable to register and obtain exclusive rights to use our trademarks in certain jurisdictions. As we expand our international activities, our exposure to unauthorized copying and use of our platforms will likely increase.

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In addition to the broader risks to our intellectual property described above, competitors and other third parties may register trademarks or domain names that are similar to our trademarks or domain names or purchase keywords that are confusingly similar to our brands or websites in internet search engine advertising programs and in the header and text of the resulting sponsored links or advertisements in order to divert potential customers from us to their websites. Preventing such activity is inherently difficult. If we are unable to prevent such activity, competitors and other third parties may continue to drive potential online customers away from our platforms to competing, irrelevant or potentially offensive platforms, which could harm our reputation and cause us to lose revenue.

We may also not be able to successfully halt the operations of platforms that aggregate our data as well as data from other companies, including social networks, or “copycat” platforms that have misappropriated our data in the past or may misappropriate our data in the future. From time to time, third parties have misappropriated our data through scraping our platforms, robots or other means and aggregated this data on their platforms with data from other companies. In addition, historically “copycat” platforms or client applications had misappropriated data on our platforms, implanted Trojan viruses in user PCs or mobiles to steal user data from our mobile applications and attempted to imitate our brand or the functionality of our platforms. When we became aware of such platforms, we employed technological and legal measures in an attempt to halt their operations. However, we may not be able to detect all such misappropriation in a timely manner and, even if we could, technological and legal measures may be insufficient to stop all such misappropriation. In those cases, our available remedies may not be adequate to protect us against such misappropriation. Regardless of whether we can successfully enforce our rights against these third parties, any measures that we may take could require significant financial or other resources from us. Those third parties may also lure away some of our users or advertisers or reduce our market share, causing material and adverse effects to our business operations.

Litigation may be necessary in the future to enforce our intellectual property rights and to protect our trade secrets. Such litigation could be costly, time-consuming, and distracting to management, and could result in the impairment or loss of portions of our intellectual property. Further, our efforts to enforce our intellectual property rights may be met with defenses, counterclaims, and countersuits attacking the validity and enforceability of our intellectual property rights, and if such defenses, counterclaims or countersuits are successful, we could lose valuable intellectual property rights. Our inability to protect our proprietary technology against unauthorized copying or use, as well as any costly litigation or diversion of our management’s attention and resources, could delay further sales or the implementation of our platforms, impair the functionality of our platforms, delay introductions of our platforms, result in our substituting inferior or more costly technologies into our platforms or damage our reputation.

We have been and may be subject to intellectual property infringement, misappropriation or other claims or allegations in multiple jurisdictions, which could result in our payment of substantial damages, penalties and fines, removal of relevant content from our website, removal of relevant application from application store platform, or seeking license arrangements which may not be available on commercially reasonable terms.

Third party owners or right holders of patents, copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets and website content may assert intellectual property infringement, misappropriation or other claims against us. Our success depends, in part, on our ability to develop and commercialize our platforms without infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating the intellectual property rights of third parties. However, we may not be aware that our platforms are infringing, misappropriating or otherwise violating third-party intellectual property rights and such third parties may bring claims alleging such infringement, misappropriation or violation. In addition, content generated through our platforms, including real-time content, may also potentially cause disputes regarding content ownership or intellectual property rights. For example, we could face copyright infringement claims with respect to songs performed live, recorded or made accessible and online games being streamed live, recorded or made accessible on our audio and video-based social entertainment platforms. Separately, as our business expands in global landscape, the costs of carrying out these procedures and obtaining authorization and licenses for the growing content on our platforms and to use such content in multiple jurisdictions into which we may expand our operations may increase, which may potentially have material and adverse effects on our results of operations.

The validity, enforceability and scope of protection of intellectual property rights in internet-related industries are uncertain and still evolving. Considering the nature of our business, we have been subject to infringement claims and may continue to be subject to such infringement claims, including with respect to alleged content infringement or software copyright infringement, from time to time. We cannot predict the outcome of the legal proceedings of such nature. Also, these legal proceedings may be expensive, time-consuming and disruptive to our operations and divert our management’s attention. There can be no assurance that we will prevail in these legal proceedings and we cannot assure you that no intellectual property claims or lawsuits will be initiated by other companies in the future. In addition, if any third party complains to an application store platform, alleging that we have infringed upon such third party’s intellectual property rights, our applications may be temporarily removed from such platform, which could negatively affect our operational and/or financial results.

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We have implemented procedures to reduce the likelihood that we may use, develop or make available any content or applications without the proper licenses or necessary third-party consents; such procedures include requiring performers, channel owners and users to acknowledge and agree that they would not perform or upload copyrighted content without proper authorization and that they will indemnify us for any relevant copyright infringement claims. However, these procedures may not be effective in preventing unauthorized posting or use of copyrighted content on our platforms or the infringement of third-party rights. Specifically, such acknowledgments and agreements by performers, channel owners and users are not enforceable against third parties who may nevertheless file claims of copyright infringement against us. Furthermore, individual performers or channel owners who generate content on our platform that may infringe copyrights of third parties may not be easily traceable, if at all, by a plaintiff who may then choose to file a claim against us, and these individual performers and channel owners may not have resources to fully indemnify us, if at all, for any such claims. We cannot assure you that we will not become subject to other intellectual property claims and lawsuits in the jurisdictions where we have presence, including the United States, by virtue of our ADSs being listed on the Nasdaq Global Select Market, the ability of users to access our platforms in the United States and other jurisdictions, the performance of songs and other contents which are subject to copyright and other intellectual property laws of multiple jurisdictions, the ownership of our ADSs by investors in the United States and other jurisdictions, or the extraterritorial application of laws by courts in any other jurisdiction or otherwise. In addition, as a publicly-listed company, we may be exposed to increased risk of litigation.

If an infringement claim brought against us under the jurisdictional laws is successful, we may be required to pay substantial statutory penalties or other damages and fines, remove relevant content from our platforms, face injunctive relief or enter into license agreements which may not be made on commercially reasonable terms or at all. We currently have a U.S. patent portfolio, and our competitors and other third parties may now or in the future have significantly larger and more mature patent portfolios than we have. Litigation or other claims against us also subject us to adverse publicity which could harm our reputation and affect our ability to attract and retain users, including channel owners, singers and other performers, which could materially and adversely affect the popularity of our platforms and therefore, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects may be materially and adversely affected.

As our patents may expire and may not be extended, our patent applications may not be granted and our patent rights may be contested, circumvented, invalidated or limited in scope, our patent rights may not protect us effectively. In particular, we may not be able to prevent others from developing or exploiting competing technologies, which could have a material and adverse effect on our business operations, financial condition and results of operations.

Generally, registered patents are subject to finite terms in various jurisdictions, which may vary from jurisdictions to jurisdictions as to the specific time period, term extension and other regulatory maintenance requirements. For example, in the United States and Singapore, once a patent is granted, it will be protected for twenty years from the date of application filing. The same twenty-year period also applies to patents for invention in Vietnam and invention patents in Thailand, while the valid period for patents for utility in Vietnam and design patents in Thailand is ten years. In mainland China, the valid period of utility model patent right and design patent right is ten years and fifteen years, respectively, and is not extendable. Currently, we have patent applications pending in multiple regions across the globe, but we cannot assure you that we will be granted patents pursuant to our pending applications or will be granted patents based on patent applications we may file in other jurisdictions. Even if our patent applications succeed and we are issued patents in accordance with them, it is still uncertain whether these patents will be contested, circumvented or invalidated in the future. The rights granted under any issued patents may not provide us with proprietary protection or competitive advantages. Further, the claims under any patents that issue from our patent applications may not be broad enough to prevent others from developing technologies that are similar or that achieve results similar to ours. It is also possible that the intellectual property rights of others will bar us from licensing and from exploiting any patents that issue from our pending applications. Numerous U.S. and patents issued in other regions and pending patent applications owned by others exist in the fields in which we have developed and are developing our technology. These patents and patent applications might have priority over our patent applications and could subject our patent applications to invalidation and subject to patent infringement lawsuits if we expand our operations into such jurisdictions. Finally, in addition to those who may claim priority, any of our existing or pending patents may also be challenged by others on the basis that they are otherwise invalid or unenforceable.

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If we fail to maintain and enhance our brands or to effectively promote our products and acquire new users, advertisers or merchants, or if we incur excessive expenses in these efforts, our business, results of operations and prospects may be materially and adversely affected.

We believe that maintaining and enhancing our brands is of significant importance to the success of our business. Well-recognized brands are important to increasing the number of users and the level of engagement of our users and enhancing our attractiveness to advertisers and merchants. Since we operate in a highly competitive market, brand maintenance and enhancement directly affect our ability to maintain our market position.

As we expand in the future, we may conduct various marketing and brand promotion activities using various methods to continue promoting our brands. We cannot assure you, however, that these activities will be successful or that we will be able to achieve the brand promotion effect we expect. In addition, any negative publicity in relation to our products or services, regardless of its veracity, could harm our brands and reputation.

We have sometimes received, and expect to continue to receive, complaints from users or third parties regarding the quality of the products and services we offer. Negative publicity or public complaints may harm our reputation and affect our ability to attract new users and retain existing users. If these complaints are not addressed properly, our reputation and our market position could be significantly harmed, which may materially and adversely affect our business, results of operations and prospects.

Our business depends substantially on the continuing efforts of our executive officers and key employees, and our business operations may be severely disrupted if we lose their services.

Our future success depends substantially on the continued efforts of our executive officers and key employees. If one or more of our executive officers or key employees were unable or unwilling to continue their services with us, we might not be able to replace them easily, in a timely manner, or at all. In addition, some of our executive officers and key employees hold the equity interests in the variable interest entities in mainland China. If any of these executive officers and key employees terminates their services with us, we have the contractual right to appoint designees to hold the variable interest entities’ equity interests. However, our business may be severely disrupted, our financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected and we may incur additional expenses to recruit, train and retain personnel. If any of our executive officers or key employees joins a competitor or forms a competing company, we may lose customers, know-how and key professionals and staff members. Each of our executive officers and key employees has entered into an employment agreement and a non-compete agreement with us. However, such non-compete agreement may not be fully enforceable under applicable laws. If any dispute arises between our executive officers and key employees and us, we cannot assure you that we would be able to enforce these non-compete agreements.

If we are unable to attract, train and retain qualified personnel, our business may be materially and adversely affected.

Our future success depends, to a significant extent, on our ability to attract, train and retain qualified personnel, particularly management, technical and marketing personnel with expertise in the internet industry; inability to do so may materially and adversely affect our business. Since the internet industry is characterized by high demand and intense competition for talent, we cannot assure you that we will be able to attract or retain qualified staff or other highly skilled employees. As we have limited experience operating our current businesses, our ability to train and integrate new employees into our operations may not meet the growing demands of our business which may materially and adversely affect our ability to grow our business and hence our results of operations.

We may be exposed to cyber security risk.

Computer hackers, governments or cyber terrorists may attempt to penetrate our network security and our website. Unauthorized access to our proprietary business information or customer data may be obtained through break-ins, sabotage, breach of our secure network by an unauthorized party, computer viruses, computer denial-of-service attacks, employee theft or misuse, breach of the security of the networks of our third-party providers, or other misconduct. Because the techniques used by computer programmers who may attempt to penetrate and sabotage our network security or our website change frequently and may not be recognized until launched against a target, we may be unable to anticipate these techniques. It is also possible that unauthorized access to customer data may be obtained through inadequate use of security controls by customers. We would suffer economic and reputational damages if a technical failure of our systems or a security breach compromises our user data, including identification or contact information. Any disruption to our computer systems could have a material adverse effect on our on-site operations and ability to retain and attract users.

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Our results of operations are subject to fluctuations due to seasonality and other factors.

We experience seasonality in our business, reflecting seasonal fluctuations in internet usage. As a result, comparing our operating results on a period-to-period basis may not be meaningful. There could be fluctuations and changes in overall consumer demand for our products and services in certain markets in general or during certain months and holidays. For example, online user numbers tend to be lower during the holidays and celebrations in different cultures (including, but not limited to, Independence Day, Ramadan, Lunar New Year, etc.), which negatively affects our cash flow for those periods. We may also experience a slight decrease of active users during Christmas and ending with the New Year’s Day. Historically, excluding the impact of COVID-19, our revenues from advertising have followed the same general seasonal trend throughout the year with the first quarter of the year being the weakest quarter and the fourth quarter being the strongest. Additionally, a portion of our e-commerce revenues correlate with the gross merchandise value (GMV) that merchants facilitate through our smart commerce solution platform. Our merchants tend to process more GMV during the fourth quarter due to holiday season.

Other factors may also cause our revenue, profits and other operating results to vary significantly from quarter to quarter, such as (i) timing of marketing campaigns and promotional activities we conduct from time to time; (ii) timing of new products and services releases and monetization rates of our products and services or content enhancements in different markets; (iii) increases in sales and marketing and other operating expenses; (iv) macroeconomic conditions including recessionary fears or rising inflation and their effect on consumer spending; (v) geopolitical conditions; and (vi) business strategy changes.

As a result, our operating results in future quarters or years may fall below the expectations of securities analysts and investors. In such event, the trading price of our ADSs would likely be materially and adversely affected.

We face risks associated with our investments.

We currently invest a portion of our capital in long-term and short-term investments. Our long-term investments mainly consisted of investment in equity method investees, equity investments with readily determinable fair values and equity investments without readily determinable fair values, and our short-term investments mainly consisted of financial products issued by commercial banks with a variable interest rate indexed to the performance of underlying assets and a maturity date within one year when purchased. These investments may earn yields substantially lower than anticipated, and any failure to realize the benefits we expected from these investments may materially and adversely affect our business and financial results. Any change in securities prices and market conditions could lead to volatility in the fair value of our investments accounted for at fair value, which could further impact our financial condition and results of operations and may also impact our ability to dispose of these investments at favorable prices. We may also suffer losses from these long-term and short-term investments, which could adversely affect our results of operations and financial condition. Further, we may be adversely affected by a crisis in the banking industry. If banks and financial institutions enter receivership or become insolvent in the future and a portion of our cash or cash equivalents and/or short-term investments is held in such banks and financial institutions, our ability to access our existing cash and cash equivalents and/or short-term investments may be impacted, which could have a material adverse effect on our business and financial condition.

If we fail to maintain an effective system of internal control over financial reporting, we may be unable to accurately report our financial results or prevent fraud, and investor confidence in our company and the market price of our ADSs may be adversely affected.

The SEC, as required by Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002, or the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, adopted rules requiring most public companies to include a management report on such company’s internal control over financial reporting in its annual report, which contains management’s assessment of the effectiveness of the company’s internal control over financial reporting. In addition, when a company meets the SEC’s criteria, an independent registered public accounting firm must report on the effectiveness of the company’s internal control over financial reporting.

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Our management have concluded that our internal control over financial reporting was effective as of December 31, 2025. Our independent registered public accounting firm has issued an audit report, which has concluded that we maintained, in all material respects, effective internal control over financial reporting as of December 31, 2025. However, we cannot assure you that in the future our management or our independent registered public accounting firm will not identify material weaknesses during the Section 404 of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act audit process or for other reasons. In addition, because of the inherent limitations of internal control over financial reporting, including the possibility of collusion or improper management override of controls, material misstatements due to error or fraud may not be prevented or detected on a timely basis. As a result, if we fail to maintain effective internal control over financial reporting or should we be unable to prevent or detect material misstatements due to error or fraud on a timely basis, investors could lose confidence in the reliability of our financial statements, which in turn could harm our business, results of operations and negatively impact the market price of our ADSs, and harm our reputation. Furthermore, we have incurred and expect to continue to incur considerable costs and to use significant management time and the other resources in an effort to comply with Section 404 and other requirements of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act.

Unauthorized third-party platforms may sell virtual items we offer for free on our platforms, which may affect our revenue-generating opportunities and exert downward pressure on the prices we charge for our virtual items.

We, from time to time, offer virtual items free of charge to attract users or encourage user participation in channels. Some of our users may sell or purchase such free virtual items through unauthorized third-party sellers in exchange for real currency. For example, fans of a performer may pay other users to send flowers or gifts the latter have accumulated on our platforms to the performer, in order to show support and raise the popularity ranking of the performer of their choice. These unauthorized transactions are usually arranged on third-party platforms which we do not and are unable to track or monitor. Accordingly, these unauthorized purchases and sales from third-party sellers may affect our revenue-generating opportunities and may impede our revenue and profit growth by, among other things, reducing the revenues we could have generated and exerting downward pressure on the prices we charge for our virtual items.

We have limited business insurance coverage, so that any uninsured occurrence of business disruption may result in substantial costs to us and the diversion of our resources, which could have an adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition.

Insurance products available in some emerging markets in which we operate currently are not as extensive as those offered in more developed economies. We may not have sufficient insurance coverage for business liabilities or disruptions. We have determined that the costs of insuring for these risks and the difficulties associated with acquiring such insurance on commercially reasonable terms make it impractical for us to have such insurance. Any uninsured occurrence may disrupt our business operations, require us to incur substantial costs and divert our resources, which could have an adverse effect on our results of operations and financial condition.

We face risks related to geopolitical events, natural disasters, health epidemics, and other outbreaks, which could significantly disrupt our operations.

Our business could be adversely affected by the effects of epidemics. In recent years, there have been outbreaks of epidemics globally. Our business operations could be disrupted if one of our employees is suspected of having contracted the H1N1 flu, avian flu, Ebola, COVID-19 or another epidemic, since it could require our employees to be quarantined and/or our offices to be disinfected. Our results of operations could be adversely affected to the extent that the outbreak has any negative impact on the global economy in general and the global mobile internet and gaming industries in particular.

We are also vulnerable to natural disasters and other calamities. It is possible that we may be unable to recover certain data in the event of a server failure. We cannot assure you that any backup systems will be adequate to protect us from the effects of fire, floods, typhoons, earthquakes, power loss, telecommunications failures, break-ins, war, riots, terrorist attacks or similar events. Any of the foregoing events may give rise to server interruptions, breakdowns, system failures, technology platform failures or internet failures, which could cause the loss or corruption of data or malfunctions of software or hardware as well as adversely affect our ability to provide services on our platform.

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Non-compliance on the part of third parties with which we conduct business could restrict our ability to maintain or increase our number of users or the level of traffic to our platforms.

Our business partners may be subject to regulatory penalties or punishments because of their regulatory compliance failures, which may disrupt our business. Although we conduct a rigid review of legal formalities and certifications before entering into contractual relationship with other businesses such as third-party game developers, e-commerce merchants and landlords, we cannot be certain whether such third party has or will infringe any third parties’ legal rights or violate any regulatory requirements. We regularly identify irregularities or non-compliance in the business practices of any parties with whom we pursue existing or future cooperation and we cannot assure you that any of these irregularities will be corrected in a prompt and proper manner. The legal liabilities and regulatory actions on our commercial partners may affect our business activities and reputation and in turn, our results of operations. We may also be adversely affected for intellectual property infringement, product related claims, consumer protection deficiencies, or regulatory violations resulting from e-commerce merchants who use our e-commerce services.

In addition, we allow providers of some online services to establish channels on our platforms. The online service providers and the producers of content on our platforms may be required to meet specific qualifying standards, evidenced by approvals, permits or certificates, and to comply with various requirements when conducting business. We cannot predict if any non-compliance on the part of such commercial partners may cause potential liabilities to us and in turn disrupt our operations.

Risks Related to Doing Business in the Jurisdictions Where We Operate

We are subject to the risks of doing business globally.

We maintain our operations in multiple jurisdictions across the globe, and may in the future continue expanding, or seek to expand, our operations to additional jurisdictions. The global operation and expansion plan exposes us to international political, legal and economic risks, which are fluid and unpredictable. Our ability to maintain good operation in multiple countries and regions may be adversely affected by changes in international and local laws, regulations and government policies such as those related to investment, taxation, import and export tariffs, environmental regulations, land use rights, intellectual property, currency controls, network security and other matters. Many, if not all of the above-mentioned risks also apply to our operations in multiple jurisdictions across the globe where we operate or seek to operate. If any of these risks were to occur, our business, financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected by any of the risks above. For example, in recent years, there have been increased tariffs and trade tensions, and it is uncertain whether such tensions will continue to escalate. Protectionist government policies may reduce the level of international trade and negatively affect our business operations. See “—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—Changes in global or regional economic, geopolitical or social conditions, as well as changes in government policies, could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.”

We cannot guarantee that we will be able to successfully carry out our global expansion strategy. We will face certain risks inherent in doing business globally, including, but not limited to, difficulties in developing, staffing and simultaneously managing global operations as a result of distance, language and cultural differences; challenges in formulating effective local sales and marketing strategies targeting users from various jurisdictions and cultures, who have a diverse range of preferences and demands; challenges in identifying appropriate local business partners and establishing and maintaining good working relationships with them; challenges in recruiting and retaining talented and capable management and employees in various markets; challenges in obtaining and maintaining sufficient intellectual property protection and rights in various jurisdictions; dependence on local platforms in marketing our international products and services in multiple regions across the globe; challenges in selecting suitable geographical regions for international business; political or social unrest or economic instability; compliance with applicable laws and regulations in multiple regions across the globe and unexpected changes in laws or regulations, including, but not limited to, investment restrictions and ownership requirements; exposure to different tax jurisdictions that may subject us to greater fluctuations in our effective tax rate and potentially adverse tax consequences; and increased costs associated with doing business in multiple jurisdictions across the globe.

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As we operate in multiple jurisdictions across the globe, economic, political and social conditions of certain jurisdictions may represent unique features, as compared to other jurisdictions, in many aspects. With our subsidiaries incorporated in multiple jurisdictions across the globe, our business, financial condition, results of operations and prospects in those jurisdictions may be influenced to a significant degree by local political, economic and social conditions. Also, the economies in emerging markets generally differ from the economies of most developed countries in many respects, including the level of government involvement, level of development, growth rate, control of foreign exchange, government policy on public order and allocation of resources. The government authorities of certain jurisdictions have significant oversight over the conduct of our business in those jurisdictions and may influence our local operations. These government authorities have published and may continue to publish new policies that significantly affect certain industries and we cannot rule out the possibility that they will in the future release regulations or policies that directly or indirectly affect our industry or require us to comply with more stringent regulatory requirements in order for us continue our local operations, which could result in a material adverse change in our operation in such jurisdictions and/or the value of our ADSs. Therefore, investors of our company face potential uncertainty from actions taken by the governmental authorities in markets in which we operate. If we cannot timely and effectively manage such challenge, it may place significant strain on our management and resources to keep balance among the jurisdictions where we operate, which may adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We have limited experience in international markets. If we fail to meet the challenges presented by our increasingly globalized operations, our business, financial condition and results of operations may be materially and adversely affected.

We have limited experience in international markets and we expect to enter into and expand our operations in international markets. Our businesses have footprint around the world, primarily including North America, Europe, the Middle East and Southeast Asia. Global expansion is a key growth strategy for us, which exposes us to a number of risks, including:

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There is no assurance we will be able to manage these risks and challenges as we continue to grow our international businesses. Failure to manage these risks and challenges could negatively affect our ability to expand our international and cross-border businesses and operations as well as materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.

We face risks and uncertainties to comply with the laws, regulations and rules in various aspects in multiple jurisdictions across the globe. Failure to comply with such applicable laws, regulations and rules may subject our global operations to strict scrutiny by local authorities, which in turn may materially and adversely affect our globalized operations.

We operate in several key markets across the globe and our revenue is diversified across multiple markets. As we expand our operations in additional emerging markets and regions, we may have to take efforts to comply with the local legal requirements and markets conditions. Such efforts may include, among others, adapting our business models or operations to the local markets and engaging specialized professionals for compliance purpose. Our global operations and expansion efforts may result in increased costs and are subject to various risks, including difficulties in obtaining licenses, permits or other applicable governmental authorizations, content control from local authorities, uncertain enforcement of intellectual property rights, potential claims of intellectual property infringement, the complexity of compliance with laws and regulations and cultural differences. Compliance with applicable laws, regulations and rules related to matters that are central to our business, including those related to live streaming services, advertising, online gaming, virtual items, communications, internet services, e-commerce, content restrictions, data privacy, data usage, data transfer, data processing, data storage, data retention and protection, anti-corruption laws, employment and labor laws, intellectual property, anti-money laundering, protection of minors, national security, economic or other trade prohibitions or sanctions, foreign investment and currency control regulations, increases the costs and risk exposure of doing business in multiple jurisdictions across the globe including North America, Europe, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia, among others. Laws and regulations and their enforcement vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction and are often evolving, unclear or inconsistent with other applicable laws. In some cases, compliance with the laws and regulations of one country could violate the laws and regulations of another country. Additionally, as we operate across multiple markets across the globe, we are more likely to be exposed to international political tension, which may inevitably adversely affect our business and operating results. See “—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—Changes in global or regional economic, geopolitical or social conditions, as well as changes in government policies, could materially and adversely affect our business, financial condition and results of operations.” As our globalized operations evolve, we cannot assure you that we are able to fully comply with the legal requirements of each jurisdiction and successfully adapt our business models to local market conditions. Due to the complexity involved in our global business expansion, we cannot assure you that we are in compliance with all local laws or regulations, including regulatory control, license requirements, or that our existing licenses will be successfully renewed or expanded to cover all of our areas of operations. If we fail to properly and timely address those risks and challenges, our business that are not compliant with the local regulations may be subject to penalties, rectification, suspension of business and/or platform shutdown.

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Fluctuations in currency exchange rates may adversely affect our operational and financial results, which we report in U.S. dollars.

We operate in multiple markets, which exposes us to the effects of fluctuations in currency exchange rates as we report our financials and key operational metrics in U.S. dollars. Appreciation of the U.S. dollars against the local currencies used by our paying users may reduce their demand for our services, which may negatively impact our results of operations. While a majority of our revenues and expenses are denominated in U.S. dollars, some of our expenses and revenues are denominated in various other currencies, such as Euro, Singapore dollars, Renminbi, Japanese yen, Indonesian rupiah, Vietnamese dong, Thai baht, Malaysian ringgit, Turkish lira, among other currencies. We generally incur expenses for employee compensation and other operating expenses in the local currencies in the markets in which we operate. Therefore, fluctuations in the exchange rates among the various currencies that we use could cause fluctuations in our operational and financial results. Our expenses may become higher and our revenue and operating metrics may become lower than would be the case if exchange rates were stable or if we were operating and reporting in one currency. Movements in currency exchange rates may have a material adverse effect on our results of operations, which may cause our financial and operational metrics reported in U.S. dollars to be not fully representative of our underlying business performance. Because fluctuations in the value of the local currencies are not necessarily correlated, our results of operations in any period may be adversely affected by such volatility. See “Item 11. Quantitative and Qualitative Disclosures About Market Risk.”

We may enter into derivatives transactions and incur relevant costs from time to time to manage our exposure to exchange rate risk. Such derivatives transactions, while intended to be non-speculative, are designed to protect us against increases or decreases in exchange rates, but not both. If we have entered into derivatives transactions to protect against, for example, decreases in the value of a local currency and such local currency instead increases in value, we may incur financial losses. Such losses could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

If we are classified as a tax resident of certain jurisdictions for income tax purposes, such classification could result in unfavorable tax consequences to us and our shareholders or ADS holders.

Certain jurisdictions in which we conduct business have adopted tax laws and regulations that impose income tax or other adverse tax consequences on foreign enterprises if they are deemed to be tax residents of such jurisdictions. The tax resident status is generally subject to determination by the local tax authorities, and there can be uncertainties with such determination. If the tax authorities of a certain jurisdiction other than Cayman Islands determine that we are a tax resident there for income tax purposes, we could be subject to tax on our worldwide income or other adverse tax consequences, which could materially reduce our net income. In addition, our shareholders (including our ADS holders) may be subject to tax on gains realized on the sale or other disposition of ADSs or ordinary shares or on the dividends we pay to them. Any such tax may reduce the returns on your investment in the ADSs or ordinary shares.

Under the Singapore Income Tax Act, a company established outside Singapore but whose governing body, being the board of directors, usually exercises de facto control and management of its business in Singapore could be considered a tax resident in Singapore. However, such control and management of the business should not be deemed to be in Singapore if physical board meetings are mainly conducted outside of Singapore. Where board resolutions are passed in the form of written consent signed by the directors each acting in their own jurisdictions, or where the board meetings are held by teleconference or videoconference, it is possible that the place of de facto control and management will be considered to be where the majority of the board are located when they sign such consent or attend such conferences.

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We believe that we are not a Singapore tax resident for Singapore income tax purposes. However, our tax residence status is subject to determination by the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore, and uncertainties remain with respect to the interpretation of the term “control and management” for the purposes of the Singapore Income Tax Act. If the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore determines that we are a Singapore tax resident for Singapore income tax purposes, the portion of our single company income on an unconsolidated basis that is received or deemed by the Singapore Income Tax Act to be received in Singapore, where applicable, may be subject to Singapore income tax at the prevailing tax rate of 17% before applicable income tax exemptions or relief, where Bigo Technology Pte. Ltd., or Bigo Singapore, is entitled to enjoy the beneficial tax rate of 5% as the incentive for the years 2018 through 2025, and 10% for the years 2026 through 2027. If we are regarded as a Singapore tax resident, any dividends received or deemed received by us in Singapore from subsidiaries located in a foreign jurisdiction with a rate of income tax or tax of a similar nature of no more than 15% may generally be subject to additional Singapore income tax where there is no other applicable tax treaty between such foreign jurisdiction and Singapore. Income is considered to have been received in Singapore when it is: (i) remitted to, transmitted or brought into Singapore; (ii) applied in or towards satisfaction of any debt incurred in respect of a trade or business carried on in Singapore; or (iii) applied to purchase any movable property that is brought into Singapore. In addition, as Singapore does not impose withholding tax on dividends declared by Singapore resident companies, if we are considered a Singapore tax resident, dividends paid to the holders of our common shares and ADSs will not be subject to withholding tax in Singapore. Regardless of whether or not we are regarded as a Singapore tax resident, holders of our common shares or the ADSs who are not Singapore tax residents would generally not be subject to Singapore income tax on gains derived from the disposal of our common shares or the ADSs if such shareholders do not maintain a permanent establishment in Singapore, to which the disposition gains may be effectively connected, and the entire process (including the negotiation, deliberation, execution of the acquisition and sale, etc.) leading up to the actual acquisition and sale of the ADSs or our common shares is performed outside of Singapore. For Singapore resident shareholders, if the gain from disposal of our common shares or the ADSs is considered by the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore as income in nature, such gain will generally be subject to Singapore income tax, and not taxable in Singapore if the gain is considered by the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore as capital gains in nature. See “Item 10. Additional Information—Taxation—Singapore Taxation.”

If our preferential tax treatments are revoked or become unavailable or if the calculation of our tax liability is successfully challenged by the relevant tax authorities, we may be required to pay tax, interest and penalties in excess of our tax provisions, and our financial condition and results of operations could be materially and adversely affected.

According to the applicable provisions under Singapore law, corporations that are engaging in new high-value-added projects, expanding or upgrading their operations, or undertaking incremental activities after their pioneer period may apply for their profits to be taxed at a reduced rate of 5%, at minimum, for an initial period of up to ten years. The total tax relief period for each qualifying project or activity is subject to a maximum of 40 years (inclusive of the post-pioneer relief period previously granted, if applicable). Bigo Singapore was approved for such preferential tax treatment, enabling it to enjoy the preferential tax rate of 5% for the years 2018 through 2025, and 10% for the years 2026 through 2027. However, Bigo Singapore will need to re-apply for the incentive qualification renewal in 2028. If Bigo Singapore fails to maintain its qualification for preferential tax treatments, its applicable enterprise income tax rate may increase to the applicable standard tax rate, which could materially and adversely affect our financial condition and results of operations.

Furthermore, there can be no assurance that our effective tax rate will not increase over time as a result of changes in corporate income tax rates or other changes in the tax laws in the jurisdictions in which we operate. Any changes in tax laws could have an adverse impact on our financial results. For example, the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development’s 2021 announcement of the Inclusive Framework on Base Erosion and Profit Shifting, along with the Pillar Two Model Rules establishing a global minimum tax of 15% for large multinational corporations, further complicates the tax landscape. Subsequent to this announcement, various administrative guidelines have been released. Several tax jurisdictions have either implemented legislation to adopt elements of the Pillar Two Model Rules, commencing in 2024 with additional components to follow in subsequent years, or have outlined intentions to do so in the future. Specifically, the implementation of the Singapore Pillar Two Law is expected to increase our reported tax expenses beginning in 2025. We will continually assess the implications of such legislative changes in the jurisdictions where we operate. Given the uncertainties surrounding the rules and their implementations, our results of operation and financial condition may be materially and adversely affected.

Our operations in mainland China are subject to complex and evolving laws and regulations.

We conduct a portion of our operations in mainland China, which accounted for 15.3%, 10.4% and 9.8% of our total net revenues for the years ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively. These operations are subject to complex and evolving laws and regulations of mainland China to the extent applicable.

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The legal system of mainland China is based on written statutes and prior court decisions may be cited for reference but have limited precedential weight. From time to time, we may have to resort to administrative and court proceedings to enforce our legal rights in mainland China. The interpretation and implementation of laws and regulations may involve procedural steps and judicial practices that evolve over time, which may create inherent uncertainties regarding the outcome of such proceedings. Furthermore, the regulatory environment in mainland China is continuously developing. The interpretation of laws may be influenced by prevailing industry policies and regulatory guidance. While the transparency of the legal system has significantly improved, the application of certain rules and policies in specific cases may still involve interpretative complexities. Any such uncertainties, including those related to the scope and effect of our contractual, property (including intellectual property), and procedural rights, could impact our business operations and the results of our legal protections.

Specifically with respect to the internet industry, the mainland China government has adopted extensive regulations. These internet-related regulations are evolving and their interpretation involves uncertainty. As a result, in certain circumstances it may be difficult to determine what actions or omissions may be deemed to be in violations of applicable laws and regulations. Permits, licenses or operations held by some of our subsidiaries or the variable interest entities may be subject to challenge, or we may fail to obtain permits or licenses that may be deemed necessary for our operations or we may not be able to renew certain permits or licenses. As of the date of this annual report, our subsidiaries and the variable interest entities in mainland China have obtained the requisite licenses and permits from the mainland China’s government authorities that are material for the continuing business operations in mainland China, including, among others, the Internet Culture Operation License, the Value-added Telecommunications Business Operation License (ICP License), the Radio and Television Program Production and Operating Permit and the License for Online Transmission of Audio-Visual Programs. Given the uncertainties of interpretation and implementation of relevant laws and regulations and the enforcement practice by relevant mainland China’s government authorities, we may be required to obtain additional licenses, permits, filings or approvals for the functions and services of our platform in the future. Furthermore, new laws, regulations or policies may be promulgated or announced that will regulate internet activities, and additional licenses may be required for our operations in mainland China as a result. If our operations in mainland China do not comply with these new regulations after they become effective, or if we fail to obtain any licenses required under these new laws and regulations, we could be subject to penalties.

In addition, the China Securities Regulatory Commission, or the CSRC, promulgated the Trial Administrative Measures of the Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, or the Overseas Listing Trial Measures, and five relevant guidelines in early 2023. The Overseas Listing Trial Measures regulate both direct and indirect overseas offering and listing by domestic company in mainland China by adopting a filing-based regulatory regime. Given the interpretation and implementation of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and our operations in mainland China, we cannot rule out the possibility that we may be required to file with the CSRC in connection with our future offerings and listings outside mainland China should we pursue any. It remains unclear as to how mainland China regulations may further evolve, how mainland China’s governmental authorities will regulate overseas listing in general and whether we will be required to obtain any specific regulatory approvals from, or complete any filing or review procedures with, the CSRC, the Cyberspace Administration of China, or the CAC, or any other mainland China governmental authorities for our operations and future offerings outside mainland China. If we fail to obtain the relevant approval or complete other filing or review procedures for our operations and/or any future offshore offering or listing, we may face sanctions by the CSRC, the CAC or other regulatory authorities of mainland China, which may include warnings, fines, suspension of business to rectify, revocation of licenses, cancellation of filings, shutdown of our platform or even criminal liability, limitations on our operating privileges in mainland China, restrictions on or prohibition of the payments or remittance of dividends by our subsidiaries in mainland China, restrictions on or delays to our future financing transactions outside mainland China, or other actions that could have a material and adverse effect on our business, financial condition, results of operations, reputation and prospects, as well as the trading price of our ADSs.

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Our subsidiaries and the variable interest entities in mainland China are subject to other restrictions and risks in their operations. For example, they are subject to restrictions on paying dividends or making other payments to us, which may to some extent restrict our ability to satisfy our liquidity requirements and to distribute dividends to our shareholders. Failure to comply with mainland China laws and regulations regarding the mergers and acquisitions of domestic enterprises by foreign investors, offshore investment activities by mainland China residents, direct investment and loans by offshore companies to domestic companies, or registration requirements for employee stock ownership plans or share option plans may restrict our cross border investment activities, limit our subsidiary’s ability to make distributions or pay dividends or affect our ownership structure, or subject the mainland China participants in our share incentive plans or us to fines and other legal or administrative sanctions. Providers of certain generative artificial intelligence services are required to conduct security assessment and complete certain filings, and if we fail to comply with this requirement, some of our websites in mainland China may face potential shutdown. Furthermore, as we issue virtual currency to users on our platforms currently operated in mainland China, we may be subject to requirements from the mainland China authorities to obtain relevant approvals or licenses, cease the virtual currency issuance or change our current business model in mainland China, and certain penalties. In addition, some of our lease agreements in mainland China may lack proper registration and some leased properties may lack appropriate title certificates, potentially in violation of local regulations or affecting the validity of the leases. If our subsidiaries or the variable interest entities in mainland China fail to comply with the applicable regulatory requirements in their operations, we may face penalties and our ability to continue to conduct operations in mainland China may be affected.

We are subject to risks related to our corporate structure in mainland China.

Laws and regulations of mainland China prohibit or restrict foreign investment in certain internet-related business, value-added telecommunication services, internet cultural services, audio-visual program transmission services and other-related businesses. Accordingly, we operate these businesses in mainland China through the variable interest entities, the structure of which is used to provide investors with exposure to foreign investment in companies based in mainland China where laws and regulations prohibit or restrict direct foreign investment in certain operating companies, and rely on contractual arrangements among our subsidiaries and the variable interest entities in mainland China as well as their shareholders to direct the business operations of the variable interest entities. Revenues contributed by the variable interest entities and their subsidiaries accounted for 13.3%, 9.9% and 8.7% of our total net revenues for the year ended December 31, 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively.

If the mainland China government deems that our corporate structure and the contractual arrangements between our subsidiaries in mainland China and the variable interest entities do not comply with mainland China laws or regulations, or if these laws or regulations or interpretations of existing laws or regulations change in the future, we could be subject to severe penalties, including fines, income confiscation, revocation or suspension of licenses, restrictions on operations, and the restructuring or shutting down of our platforms and our business operations currently operated in mainland China. In addition, if the imposition of any of these penalties causes us to lose the rights to direct the activities of the variable interest entities or our right to receive their economic benefits, we would no longer be able to consolidate such entities. Substantial uncertainties exist with respect to the interpretation and implementation of the PRC foreign investment related laws and regulations and how they may impact the viability of our current corporate structure, corporate governance and business operations in mainland China. We may not be able to fully repay our indebtedness, and our shares may decline significantly in value, if we are unable to assert our contractual control rights over the assets of the variable interest entities. Our holding company in the Cayman Islands, the variable interest entities, and investors of our company face uncertainty about potential future actions by the mainland China government that could affect the enforceability of the contractual arrangements with the variable interest entities and, consequently, significantly affect the financial performance of the variable interest entities and our company as a group.

Based on understanding of current laws, rules and regulations of mainland China of our PRC counsel, Fangda Partners, our current ownership structure for our business operations, the ownership structure of our subsidiaries in mainland China and the variable interest entities, the contractual arrangements among our subsidiaries in mainland China, the variable interest entities and their shareholders, as described in this annual report on Form 20-F, are in compliance with existing laws, rules and regulations of mainland China. However, we were further advised by Fangda Partners that there is substantial uncertainty regarding the interpretation and application of current or future laws and regulations of mainland China and these laws or regulations or interpretations of these laws or regulations may change in the future. Furthermore, the relevant government authorities have broad discretion in interpreting these laws and regulations. Accordingly, we cannot assure you that mainland China government authorities will not ultimately take a view contrary to the opinion of our PRC counsel.

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In addition, we rely on contractual arrangements with the variable interest entities and their shareholders for some of our operation in mainland China, which may not be as effective as direct ownership. If the variable interest entities and their shareholders fail to perform their obligations under these contractual arrangements, we may have to resort to litigation or other legal proceedings to enforce our rights, which may be time-consuming, unpredictable, expensive and damaging to our operations and reputation. The shareholders of the variable interest entities may have potential conflicts of interest with us, and if any such conflicts of interest are not resolved in our favor, our business may be materially and adversely affected. Furthermore, we may lose the ability to use and enjoy assets held by the variable interest entities that are important to the operation of our business if such entities go bankrupt or become subject to a dissolution or liquidation proceeding. Our ability to enforce the equity pledge agreements between us and the variable interest entities’ shareholders may be subject to limitations based on laws and regulations of mainland China.

Our contractual arrangements with the variable interest entities may also result in adverse tax consequences to us. We may be subject to adverse tax consequences if the mainland China tax authorities were to determine that the contracts between us and the variable interest entities were not on an arm’s length basis and therefore constitute a favorable transfer pricing arrangement.

Risks Related to Our ADSs

The trading prices of our ADSs are likely to be volatile, which could result in substantial losses to investors.

The trading prices of our ADSs ranged from US$37.53 to US$67.85 in 2025. The trading prices of our ADSs are likely to continue to be volatile and could fluctuate widely due to factors beyond our control. This may happen because of broad market and industry factors, such as the performance and fluctuation in the market prices or the underperformance or deteriorating financial results of other companies in the global online entertainment, advertising technology or smart commerce solution industries or with business operations located mainly in the same markets as ours. The sale of a significant number of the ADSs, common shares or other equity securities in the public market, or the perception that such sales may occur, could also materially and adversely affect the market price of our ADSs. The securities of some of these companies have experienced significant volatility since their initial public offerings, including, in some cases, substantial price declines in the trading prices of their securities. The trading performances of certain companies’ securities after their offerings, including companies in internet, social networking, advertising technology or smart commerce solution businesses, may affect the attitudes of investors toward other companies listed in the United States in the same sector, which consequently may impact the trading performance of our ADSs, regardless of our actual operating performance. In addition, any negative news or perceptions about inadequate corporate governance practices or fraudulent accounting or other practices at other companies may also negatively affect the attitudes of investors towards companies in the same sector or in the same market in general, including us, regardless of whether we have engaged in such practices. Furthermore, the stock market in general has experienced extreme price and volume fluctuations that have often been unrelated or disproportionate to the operating performance of companies like us. These broad market and industry fluctuations may adversely affect the market price of our ADSs.

In addition to market and industry factors, the price and trading volume for our ADSs may be highly volatile due to specific factors, including the following:

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Any of these factors may result in large and sudden changes in the volume and price at which our ADSs will trade.

We may be named as a defendant in putative shareholder class action lawsuits and may be subject to the SEC or third-party investigations which could have a material adverse impact on our business, financial condition, results of operation, cash flows and reputation.

We may be subject to class actions, and if we are, we cannot assure you that we will not be held liable. In addition, there can be no assurance that our insurance carriers will cover all or part of the defense costs, or any liabilities that may arise from these matters. Even if the allegations against us may ultimately be proven to be groundless, we may have to utilize a significant portion of our cash resources and divert management’s attention from the day-to-day operations of our company, all of which could harm our business. We also may be subject to claims for indemnification related to these matters, and we cannot predict the impact that indemnification claims may have on our business or financial results. In addition, we may be subject to further due diligence and investigations conducted by competent third-party advisors or regulatory authorities. We cannot predict or provide any assurance as to the timing, outcome or consequences of such reviews and investigations, and we have incurred and may continue to incur significant expenses related to legal, accounting, and other professional services in connection with matters relating to or arising from such reviews and investigations.

We believe that we were a passive foreign investment company, or PFIC, for United States federal income tax purposes for the taxable year ended December 31, 2025, and we will likely be a PFIC for the current taxable year and possibly for future taxable years, which could subject United States holders of our ADSs or Class A common shares to significant adverse United States income tax consequences.

We will be classified as a “passive foreign investment company,” or “PFIC” for United States federal income tax purposes for any taxable year, if either (a) 75% or more of our gross income for such year consists of certain types of “passive” income or (b) 50% or more of the value of our assets (generally determined on the basis of a quarterly average) during such year produce or are held for the production of passive income. Although the law in this regard is unclear, we treat the variable interest entities as being owned by us for United States federal income tax purposes, not only because we exercise effective control over the operation of such entities but also because we are entitled to substantially all of their economic benefits, and, as a result, we consolidate their operating results in our consolidated financial statements.

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Based on the market price of our ADSs and the nature and composition of our assets (in particular the retention of substantial amounts of cash, deposits and investments), we believe that we were a PFIC for United States federal income tax purposes for the taxable year ended December 31, 2025, and we will likely be a PFIC for our current taxable year unless the market price of our ADSs increases and/or we invest a substantial amount of the cash and other passive assets we hold in assets that produce or are held for the production of active income.

If we are classified as a PFIC in any taxable year, a U.S. holder (as defined in “Item 10. Additional Information—E. Taxation—United States Federal Income Tax Considerations”) will generally be subject to reporting requirements and may incur significantly increased United States income tax on gain recognized on the sale or other disposition of the ADSs or Class A common shares and on the receipt of distributions on the ADSs or Class A common shares to the extent such gain or distribution is treated as an “excess distribution” under the United States federal income tax rules. Further, if we are classified as a PFIC for any year during which a U.S. holder holds our ADSs or Class A common shares, we generally will continue to be treated as a PFIC for all succeeding years during which such U.S. holder holds our ADSs or Class A common shares. Alternatively, U.S. holders of PFIC shares can sometimes avoid the rules described above by making certain elections, including a “mark-to-market” election or electing to treat a PFIC as a “qualified electing fund.” However, U.S. holders will not be able to make an election to treat us as a “qualified electing fund” because, even if we were to be or become a PFIC, we do not intend to comply with the requirements necessary to permit U.S. holders to make such election. Each U.S. holder is urged to consult its tax advisor concerning the United States federal income tax considerations relating to the ownership and disposition of our ADSs or Class A common shares if we are treated as a PFIC for our current taxable year or any future taxable year (including the possibility of making a “mark-to-market” election and the unavailability of an election to treat us as a qualified electing fund). For more information see “Item 10. Additional Information—E. Taxation—United States Federal Income Tax Considerations—Passive Foreign Investment Company Rules.”

Our dual class common share structure with different voting rights will limit your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any change of control transactions that holders of our Class A common shares and ADSs may view as beneficial.

Our common shares are divided into Class A common shares and Class B common shares. Holders of Class A common shares are entitled to one vote per share, while holders of Class B common shares are entitled to ten votes per share, voting together as one class on all matters requiring a shareholders’ vote and which are voted upon by way of a poll. Each Class B common share is convertible into one Class A common share at any time by the holder thereof. Class A common shares are not convertible into Class B common shares under any circumstances. Upon any sale, pledge, transfer or assignment or disposition of Class B common shares by a holder thereof to any person or entity that is not an affiliate of such holder, such Class B common shares will be automatically and immediately converted into an equal number of Class A common shares. In addition, if at any time, Messrs. David Xueling Li, Jun Lei and their affiliates collectively own less than 5% of the total number of the issued and outstanding Class B common shares, each issued and outstanding Class B common share will be automatically and immediately converted into one Class A common share, and we will not issue any Class B common shares thereafter. Furthermore, if at any time more than 50% of the ultimate beneficial ownership of any holder of Class B common shares (other than our founders or our founders’ affiliates) changes, each such Class B common share will be automatically and immediately converted into one Class A common share.

Due to the disparate voting powers attached to these two classes of common shares, as of March 31, 2026, Mr. David Xueling Li and his respective affiliates, held 86.8% of the total voting power of our company and have considerable influence over all matters requiring a shareholders’ vote, including election of directors and significant corporate transactions, such as a merger or sale of our company or our assets. This concentrated control will limit your ability to influence corporate matters and could discourage others from pursuing any potential merger, takeover or other change of control transactions that holders of Class A common shares and ADSs may view as beneficial.

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Our existing shareholders have substantial influence over our company and their interests may not be aligned with the interests of our other shareholders, which may discourage, delay or prevent a change in control of our company, which could deprive our shareholders of an opportunity to receive a premium for their securities.

As of March 31, 2026, Mr. David Xueling Li, our co-founder and director, and his affiliates, held 86.8% of the total voting power. Mr. David Xueling Li has substantial influence over our business, including decisions regarding mergers, consolidations and the sale of all or substantially all of our assets, election of directors and other significant corporate actions. This concentration of ownership may discourage, delay or prevent a change in control of our company, which could deprive our shareholders of an opportunity to receive a premium for their shares as part of any contemplated sale of our company and may reduce the price of our ADSs. In addition, Mr. Li could violate the terms of his non-compete or employment agreements with us or his legal duties by diverting business opportunities from us, resulting in our loss of corporate opportunities. These actions may take place even if they are opposed by our other shareholders.

Additionally, Mr. Jun Lei, one of our major shareholders who beneficially owned 12.2% of our outstanding shares as of March 31, 2026, has delegated the voting rights of the shares that he holds in our company to Mr. Li. Mr. Lei is active in making investments in internet companies and currently holds direct and indirect interests in Xiaomi and other entities that may have businesses competing with ours. Xiaomi Corporation (HKEX: 1810) is a consumer electronics and smart manufacturing company with smartphones and smart hardware connected by an IoT platform at its core, which also offer online performance and live broadcasting services. Mr. Lei may, in the future, acquire additional interests in businesses that directly or indirectly compete with some of our lines of business or that are our suppliers or customers. Furthermore, Mr. Lei may pursue acquisitions or make further investments in our industries which may conflict with our interests. For more information regarding the beneficial ownership of our company by our principal shareholders, see “Item 6. Directors, Senior management and Employees—E. Share Ownership.”

Our reputation and the trading price of our ADSs may be negatively affected by negative media reports, other adverse publicity or detrimental conduct against us or our products.

Adverse publicity concerning alleged fraudulence on our reported user metrics and authenticity on our revenues and cash balances could harm our reputation and cause the trading price of our ADSs to decline and fluctuate significantly. We were previously the subject of an unfavorable short seller report, which led the trading price of our ADSs to decline sharply and resulted in the filing of a shareholder class action lawsuit against us and certain of our directors and officers. Although we have publicly refuted the erroneous and misleading statements regarding us in this short seller report, we may still continue to be the target of adverse publicity and detrimental conduct against us, including complaints, anonymous or otherwise, to regulatory agencies regarding our operations, accounting, revenues and regulatory compliance.

Additionally, negative media reports and allegations against us or our products may be posted on the Internet by any person or entity which identifies itself or on an anonymous basis. We may be subject to government or regulatory investigation or inquiries, or shareholder lawsuits, as a result of such third-party conduct and may be required to incur significant time and substantial costs to defend ourselves. Our reputation may also be negatively affected as a result of the public dissemination of allegations or malicious statements about us, which in turn may materially and adversely affect the trading price of our ADSs.

Techniques employed by short sellers may drive down the market price of our listed securities.

Short selling is the practice of selling securities that a seller does not own but rather has borrowed from a third party with the intention of buying identical securities back at a later date to return to the lender. Short sellers hope to profit from a decline in the value of the securities between the sale of the borrowed securities and the purchase of the replacement shares, as short sellers expect to pay less in that purchase than they received in the sale. As it is in short sellers’ interest for the price of the security to decline, many short sellers publish, or arrange for the publication of, negative opinions and allegations regarding the relevant issuer and its business prospects in order to create negative market momentum and generate profits for themselves after selling a security short. These short attacks have, in the past, led to selling of shares in the market.

Much of the scrutiny and negative publicity on the target companies has centered on allegations of lack of effective internal control over financial reporting resulting in financial and accounting irregularities and mistakes, inadequate corporate governance policies or a lack of adherence thereto and, in many cases, allegations of fraud. As a result, many of these companies are now conducting internal and external investigations into the allegations and, in the interim, are subject to shareholder lawsuits and/or SEC enforcement actions.

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We were, and may in the future be, the subject of unfavorable allegations made by short sellers. If and when we become the subject of any unfavorable allegations, whether such allegations are proven to be true or untrue, we may have to utilize a significant portion of our resources to investigate such allegations and/or defend ourselves, including in connection with class actions or regulatory enforcement actions derivative of such allegations. While we would strongly defend against any such short seller attacks, we may be constrained in the manner in which we can proceed against the relevant short sellers by principles of freedom of speech, applicable federal or state law or issues of commercial confidentiality. Such a situation could be costly and time-consuming and could divert management’s attention from the day-to-day operations of our Company. Even if such allegations are ultimately proven to be groundless, allegations against us could severely impact the market price of our securities and our business operations.

If securities or industry analysts do not publish research or reports about our business, or if they adversely change their recommendations regarding our ADSs, the market price for our ADSs and trading volume could decline.

The trading market for our ADSs will be influenced by research or reports that industry or securities analysts publish about our business. If one or more analysts who cover us downgrade our ADSs, the market price for our ADSs would likely decline. If one or more of these analysts cease to cover us or fail to regularly publish reports on us, we could lose visibility in the financial markets, which, in turn, could cause the market price or trading volume for our ADSs to decline.

The sale or availability for sale, or perceived sale or availability for sale, of substantial amounts of our ADSs could adversely affect their market price.

Sales of substantial amounts of our ADSs in the public market, or the perception that these sales could occur, could adversely affect the market price of our ADSs and could materially impair our ability to raise capital through equity offerings in the future. Our ADSs are freely tradable by persons other than our affiliates without restriction or further registration under the Securities Act of 1933, as amended, or the Securities Act, and shares held by our existing shareholders may also be sold in the public market in the future subject to the restrictions in Rule 144 and Rule 701 under the Securities Act. In addition, common shares subject to our outstanding share-based awards, including options, restricted shares and restricted share units, are eligible for sale in the public market to the extent permitted by the provisions of various vesting agreements, Rules 144 and 701 under the Securities Act. We may also issue additional options in the future which may be exercised for additional common shares and additional restricted shares and restricted share units which may vest. As of March 31, 2026 we had 681,126,029 Class A common shares (excluding 525,608,415 outstanding restricted shares and treasury Class A common shares held by entities controlled by us) and 326,509,555 Class B common shares outstanding. We cannot predict what effect, if any, market sales of securities held by our significant shareholders or any other shareholder or the availability of these securities for future sale will have on the market price of our ADSs.

Our articles of association contain anti-takeover provisions that could have a material adverse effect on the rights of holders of our common shares and ADSs.

Our articles of association contain provisions to limit the ability of others to acquire control of our company or cause us to engage in change-of-control transactions. These provisions could have the effect of depriving our shareholders of an opportunity to sell their shares at a premium over prevailing market prices by discouraging third parties from seeking to obtain control of our company in a tender offer or similar transaction. For example, our board of directors has the authority, without further action by our shareholders, to issue preferred shares in one or more series and to fix their designations, powers, preferences, privileges, and relative participating, optional or special rights and the qualifications, limitations or restrictions, including dividend rights, conversion rights, voting rights, terms of redemption and liquidation preferences, any or all of which may be greater than the rights associated with our common shares, in the form of ADSs or otherwise. Preferred shares could be issued quickly with terms calculated to delay or prevent a change in control of our company or make removal of management more difficult. If our board of directors decides to issue preferred shares, the price of our ADSs may fall and the voting and other rights of the holders of our common shares and ADSs may be materially and adversely affected.

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Our currently effective memorandum and articles of association provide that the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (or, if the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York lacks subject matter jurisdiction over a particular dispute, the state courts in New York County, New York) is the exclusive judicial forum within the U.S. for the resolution of any complaint asserting a cause of action arising out of or relating in any way to the federal securities laws of the United States, which could limit the ability of holders of our Class A common shares, the ADSs or other securities to obtain a favorable judicial forum for disputes with us, our directors and officers, the depositary, and potentially others.

Our currently effective memorandum and articles of association provide that the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York (or, if the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York lacks subject matter jurisdiction over a particular dispute, the state courts in New York County, New York) is the exclusive forum within the United States for the resolution of any complaint asserting a cause of action arising out of or relating in any way to the federal securities laws of the United States, regardless of whether such legal suit, action, or proceeding also involves parties other than our company. The enforceability of similar federal court choice of forum provisions in other companies’ organizational documents has been challenged in legal proceedings in the United States, and it is possible that a court could find this type of provision to be inapplicable or unenforceable. If a court were to find the federal choice of forum provision contained in our currently effective memorandum and articles of association to be inapplicable or unenforceable in an action, we may incur additional costs associated with resolving such action in other jurisdictions. If upheld, the forum selection clause in our currently effective memorandum and articles of association may limit a security-holder’s ability to bring a claim against us, our directors and officers, the depositary, and potentially others in his or her preferred judicial forum, and this limitation may discourage such lawsuits. Holders of our shares or the ADSs will not be deemed to have waived our compliance with the federal securities laws and the regulations promulgated thereunder pursuant to the exclusive forum provision in the currently effective memorandum and articles of association.

You may face difficulties in protecting your interests, and your ability to protect your rights through U.S. courts may be limited, because we are incorporated under Cayman Islands law.

We are an exempted company incorporated under the laws of the Cayman Islands with limited liability. Our corporate affairs are governed by our amended and restated memorandum and articles of association, the Companies Act (As Revised) of the Cayman Islands and the common law of the Cayman Islands. The rights of shareholders to take action against the directors, actions by minority shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors to us under Cayman Islands law are to a large extent governed by the common law of the Cayman Islands. The common law of the Cayman Islands is derived in part from comparatively limited judicial precedent in the Cayman Islands as well as from the common law of England, the decisions of whose courts are of persuasive authority, but are not binding, on a court in the Cayman Islands. The rights of our shareholders and the fiduciary responsibilities of our directors under Cayman Islands law are not as clearly established as they would be under statutes or judicial precedent in some jurisdictions in the United States. In particular, the Cayman Islands has a less developed body of securities laws than the United States. Some U.S. states, such as Delaware, have more fully developed and judicially interpreted bodies of corporate law than the Cayman Islands. In addition, shareholders of a Cayman Islands company may not have standing to initiate a shareholder derivative action in a federal court of the United States.

Unlike many jurisdictions in the United States, Cayman Islands law does not generally provide for shareholder appraisal rights on an approved arrangement and reconstruction of a company. This may make it more difficult for you to assess the value of any consideration you may receive in a merger or consolidation or to require that the offeror gives you additional consideration if you believe the consideration offered is insufficient. Moreover, holders of our ADSs are not entitled to appraisal rights under Cayman Islands law. ADS holders that wish to exercise their appraisal or dissentient rights must convert their ADSs into our Class A common shares by surrendering their ADSs to the depositary and paying the ADS depositary fee.

Shareholders of Cayman Islands exempted companies like us have no general rights under Cayman Islands law to inspect corporate records (except our memorandum and articles of association, special resolutions passed by our shareholders, and our register of mortgages and charges) or to obtain copies of lists of shareholders of these companies. Our directors have discretion under our existing articles of association to determine whether or not, and under what conditions, our corporate records may be inspected by our shareholders, but are not obliged to make them available to our shareholders. This may make it more difficult for you to obtain the information needed to establish any facts necessary for a shareholder motion or to solicit proxies from other shareholders in connection with a proxy contest.

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As a result of all of the above, public shareholders may have more difficulty in protecting their interests in the face of actions taken by management, members of the board of directors or controlling shareholders than they would as public shareholders of a company incorporated in the United States.

Judgments obtained against us by our shareholders may not be enforceable in our home jurisdiction.

We are a Cayman Islands exempted company and a majority of our assets are located outside of the United States. In addition, a significant majority of our current directors and officers are nationals and residents of countries other than the United States and most of their assets are located outside the United States. As a result, it may be difficult or impossible for you to bring an action against us or against these individuals in the United States in the event that you believe that your rights have been infringed under the United States federal securities laws or otherwise. Even if you are successful in bringing an action of this kind, the laws of the Cayman Islands and of mainland China may render you unable to enforce a judgment against our assets or the assets of our directors and officers.

The Cayman Islands courts are unlikely:

However, the Cayman Islands courts are unlikely to enforce a judgment obtained from the United States courts under the civil liability provisions of the securities laws if such judgment is determined by the courts of the Cayman Islands to give rise to obligations to make payments that are penal or punitive in nature. A Cayman Islands court may stay enforcement proceedings if concurrent proceedings are being brought elsewhere.

We are a foreign private issuer within the meaning of the rules under the Exchange Act, and as such we are exempt from certain provisions applicable to United States domestic public companies.

Because we qualify as a foreign private issuer under the Exchange Act, we are exempt from certain provisions of the securities rules and regulations in the United States that are applicable to U.S. domestic issuers, including:

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We are required to file an annual report on Form 20-F within four months of the end of each fiscal year. In addition, we publish our results on a quarterly basis as press releases, distributed pursuant to the rules and regulations of the Nasdaq Global Select Market. Press releases relating to financial results and material events are also be furnished to the SEC on Form 6-K. However, the information we are required to file with or furnish to the SEC are less extensive and less timely as compared to that required to be filed with the SEC by United States domestic issuers. As a Cayman Islands company listed on the Nasdaq Global Select Market, we are subject to the Nasdaq Global Select Market corporate governance requirements. However, the Nasdaq Global Select Market permit a foreign private issuer like us to follow certain corporate governance practices of its home country. Certain corporate governance practices in the Cayman Islands, which is our home country, may differ significantly from the Nasdaq Global Select Market corporate governance requirements.

We relied on the exemption available to foreign private issuers to the requirement that a majority of our board of directors as well as each member of the compensation committee and the corporate governance and nominating committee be an independent director. Currently, among our six directors, Ms. Ting Li, Mr. David Xueling Li, and Mr. Qin Liu are not independent directors, and Mr. David Xueling Li and Mr. Qin Liu serve on our compensation committee and corporate governance and nominating committee, respectively. We also relied on home country practice exemption and did not hold an annual general meeting of shareholders within one year after the end of our fiscal year-end or solicit proxies or provide proxy statements for all meetings of shareholders and provide copies of proxy solicitation to Nasdaq. See “Item 6. Directors, Senior Management and Employees—B. Compensation of Directors and Executive Officers—Share Incentive Plans” for more information. If we continue to rely on the above and other exemptions available to foreign private issuers in the future, our shareholders may be afforded less protection than they otherwise would under the Nasdaq Global Select Market corporate governance requirements applicable to U.S. domestic issuers. As a result, you may not be afforded the same protections or information, which would be made available to you, were you investing in a United States domestic issuer.

The voting rights of holders of ADSs are limited by the terms of the deposit agreement, and you may not be able to exercise your right to direct how the Class A common shares which are represented by your ADSs are voted.

Holders of ADSs do not have the same rights as our registered shareholders. As a holder of our ADSs, you do not have any direct right to attend general meetings of our shareholders or to cast any votes at such meetings. You are only able to exercise the voting rights which are carried by the underlying Class A common shares represented by your ADSs indirectly by giving voting instructions to the depositary in accordance with the provisions of the deposit agreement. Under the deposit agreement, you may vote only by giving voting instructions to the depositary. Upon receipt of your voting instructions, the depositary will vote the underlying Class A common shares represented by your ADSs in accordance with your instructions. You are not able to directly exercise your right to vote with respect to the underlying Class A common shares represented by your ADSs unless you withdraw such shares from the depositary and become the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date for the general meeting. Under our memorandum and articles of association, the minimum notice period required for convening a general meeting is at least ten clear days. When a general meeting is convened, you may not receive sufficient advance notice of the meeting to withdraw the underlying Class A common shares represented by your ADSs and become the registered holder of such shares to allow you to attend the general meeting and to vote directly with respect to any specific matter or resolution to be considered and voted upon at the general meeting. In addition, under our articles of association, our directors may close our register of members (subject to compliance with Nasdaq Global Select Market rules) or, for the purposes of determining those shareholders who are entitled to attend and vote at any general meeting, fix in advance a record date for such meeting, and such closure of our register of members or the setting of such a record date may prevent you from withdrawing the underlying Class A common shares represented by your ADSs and becoming the registered holder of such shares prior to the record date, so that you would not be able to attend the general meeting or to vote directly. If we ask for your instructions, the depositary will notify you of the upcoming vote and will arrange to deliver our voting materials to you. We cannot assure you that you will receive the voting materials in time to ensure that you can instruct the depositary to vote the underlying Class A common shares represented by your ADSs. In addition, the depositary and its agents are not responsible for failing to carry out voting instructions or for their manner of carrying out your voting instructions. This means that you may not be able to exercise your right to direct how the underlying Class A common shares represented by your ADSs are to be voted and you may have no legal remedy if the underlying Class A common shares represented by your ADSs are not voted as you requested. The depositary for our ADSs will give us a discretionary proxy to vote our Class A common shares represented by your ADSs if you do not vote at shareholders’ meetings, except in limited circumstances, which could adversely affect your interests.

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Under the deposit agreement for the ADSs, if you do not vote, the depositary will give us a discretionary proxy to vote our Class A common shares represented by your ADSs at shareholders’ meetings unless:

The effect of this discretionary proxy is that if you do not vote at shareholders’ meetings, you cannot prevent our Class A common shares represented by your ADSs from being voted, except under the circumstances described above. This may make it more difficult for shareholders to influence the management of our company. Holders of our common shares are not subject to this discretionary proxy.

You may not receive dividends or other distributions on our common shares and you may not receive any value for them, if it is illegal or impractical to make them available to you.

The depositary of our ADSs has agreed to pay to you the cash dividends or other distributions it or the custodian receives on Class A common shares or other deposited securities underlying our ADSs, after deducting its fees and expenses. You will receive these distributions in proportion to the number of Class A common shares your ADSs represent. However, the depositary is not responsible if it decides that it is unlawful or impractical to make a distribution available to any holders of ADSs. For example, it would be unlawful to make a distribution to a holder of ADSs if it consists of securities that require registration under the Securities Act but that are not properly registered or distributed under an applicable exemption from registration. The depositary may also determine that it is not feasible to distribute certain property through the mail. Additionally, the value of certain distributions may be less than the cost of mailing them. In these cases, the depositary may determine not to distribute such property. We have no obligation to register under U.S. securities laws any ADSs, common shares, rights or other securities received through such distributions. We also have no obligation to take any other action to permit the distribution of ADSs, common shares, rights or anything else to holders of ADSs. This means that you may not receive distributions we make on our common shares or any value for them if it is illegal or impractical for us to make them available to you. These restrictions may cause a material decline in the value of our ADSs.

You may be subject to limitations on transfer of your ADSs.

Your ADSs are transferable on the books of the depositary. However, the depositary may close its books at any time or from time to time when it deems expedient in connection with the performance of its duties. The depositary may close its books from time to time for a number of reasons, including in connection with corporate events such as a rights offering, during which time the depositary needs to maintain an exact number of ADS holders on its books for a specified period. The depositary may also close its books in emergencies, and on weekends and public holidays. The depositary may refuse to deliver, transfer or register transfers of our ADSs generally when our share register or the books of the depositary are closed, or at any time if we or the depositary thinks that it is advisable to do so because of any requirement of law or of any government or governmental body, or under any provision of the deposit agreement, or for any other reason in accordance with the terms of the deposit agreement. As a result, you may be unable to transfer your ADSs when you wish to.

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We cannot guarantee that our share repurchase program will be fully consummated. Share repurchases and dividend payments could also increase the volatility of the trading price of our ADSs and will diminish our cash reserves.

Although our board of directors has authorized a currently effective share repurchase program, which was approved in March 2025 and authorized us to repurchase up to US$300 million of our shares until the end of 2027, the program does not obligate us to repurchase any specific dollar amount or to acquire any specific number of shares. The specific timing and amount of any share repurchases, and the specific timing and amount of any future dividend payments, will depend on prevailing share prices, general economic and market conditions, company performance, and other considerations. We cannot guarantee that the repurchase program will be fully consummated. The repurchase program and future dividend payments could affect the trading price of our ADSs and increase volatility, and any announcement of a termination of the repurchase program or dividend payments, may result in a decrease in the trading price of our ADSs. In addition, repurchase programs and future dividend payments will diminish our cash reserves.

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ITEM 4.     INFORMATION ON THE COMPANY

We commenced operations in April 2005 with the establishment of Guangzhou Huaduo in mainland China. In July 2011, we established an exempted company with limited liability in the Cayman Islands, YY Inc., as our holding company. On November 21, 2012, our ADSs were listed on The Nasdaq Stock Market under the symbol “YY.” Effective December 20, 2019, we changed our corporate name from “YY Inc.” to “JOYY Inc.” We began trading under the new corporate name on December 30, 2019. Effective March 31, 2025, we changed our trading symbol on The Nasdaq Stock Market from “YY” to “JOYY.”

Since our inception, we have undergone significant strategic transformations, evolving through three distinct operational phases to transition from a regional market leader to a global social entertainment company, and finally into a globally diversified multi-engine technology ecosystem.

Phase 1.0: Foundations in Mainland China (2005–2014). During this initial period, we focused on the development of the social entertainment industry in mainland China. We successfully incubated and scaled several market leading platforms including YY Live and Huya, establishing a leadership position in real-time video engagement and livestreaming technology within the PRC market.

Phase 2.0: Strategic Globalization (2014–2021). In 2014, foreseeing massive global opportunities, we initiated a proactive globalization strategy to capture opportunities in international markets. This expansion was anchored by our investment in, and the subsequent full acquisition of, BIGO in March 2019. This milestone integrated a high-growth global product matrix into our portfolio and established an extensive localized operational network, giving us an in-depth presence across Asia, North America, the Middle East, and Europe. To streamline our strategic focus on global operations, we divested Huya and YY Live, in 2020 and 2021, respectively.

Phase 3.0: Transition to a Multi-Engine Growth Ecosystem (2022–Present). Beginning in 2022, we entered a new strategic phase, characterized by the structural diversification of our revenue streams and the scaling of our business-to-business (B2B) technology suite. Fueled by the launch of BIGO Ads Audience Network and the strategic consolidation of Shopline in August 2022, we are transitioning into a multi-growth engine ecosystem. Today, we leverage our foundational social entertainment engagement to empower programmatic advertising and omnichannel smart commerce solutions, to capture structural value across the global digital economy.

Currently, we mainly operate our global business through the following significant subsidiaries:

We also conduct part of our business in mainland China primarily through a significant variable interest entity, Guangzhou BaiGuo Yuan Network Technology Co., Ltd., and some of its subsidiaries.

Our principal executive offices are located at 30 Pasir Panjang Road #15-31A Mapletree Business City, Singapore 117440. Our registered office in the Cayman Islands is located at Conyers Trust Company (Cayman) Limited of Cricket Square, Hutchins Drive, P.O. Box 2681, Grand Cayman, KYI-1111, Cayman Islands.

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All information we file with the SEC can be obtained over the internet at the SEC’s website at www.sec.gov. You can also find information on our website at ir.joyy.com. The information contained on our website is not a part of this annual report.

Overview

We are a global technology company with a mission to enrich lives through technology, leveraging a proprietary technology stack to bridge social interaction, programmatic advertising, and omnichannel smart commerce.

We are a leader in the global social entertainment sector. Through our social product matrix and communication technology, we enable people to connect with friends and family, discover and explore their interests, and share their experiences and ideas with a global audience through photos, audio, and videos. We serve a global user base of 272.1 million monthly active users as of the fourth quarter of 2025, covering North America, Europe, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and more, through our diverse product matrix covering live streaming, short videos, instant messaging, casual games, and beyond. Several of our social apps ranked among the Top 10 in terms of consumer spending in various geographic regions in which we operate, according to data.ai.

We are transitioning from a specialized social entertainment platform into a globally diversified technology ecosystem powered by multiple growth engines. We have been exploring innovative technologies and initiatives to further expand our offerings beyond social entertainment, tapping into new addressable markets worldwide. We are actively scaling our B2B technology stack, resulting in a strategic expansion of our non-live streaming revenues in 2025, primarily from advertising and smart commerce. In 2025, our total non-livestreaming revenue increased by 32.2% year over year, contributing 28.0% of total group revenue, up from 20.1% in the prior year.

The long-term value of JOYY lies in our full-stack synergies, which was derived from the interconnectivity of our social data, advanced and continuously optimizing advertising algorithms, and comprehensive smart commerce solutions, which together form an integrated flywheel of user engagement and monetization.

Core Global Social Entertainment Products

Strategic Growth Engines: Advertising and Smart Commerce

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Business Model

We generate revenue through a diversified mix of global social engagement and business-to-business (B2B) technology solutions.

Our core global social entertainment platforms, including Bigo Live, Likee, Hago and imo, primarily utilize a virtual item-based monetization model. Users engage in real-time social interactions, purchase virtual currency to send gifts to performers during real-time livestreaming sessions or subscribe to premium membership services that offer exclusive status and privileges. In 2025, virtual tips for live streaming accounted for 72.0% of our revenues.

Our B2B growth engines, primarily BIGO Ads and Shopline, have structurally optimized our revenue mix by expanding our reach into programmatic advertising and omnichannel smart commerce. BIGO Ads generates revenue through comprehensive advertising solutions, leveraging our proprietary programmatic technology to monetize first-party traffic from platforms like imo and Likee, as well as third-party inventory through the BIGO Audience Network. In 2025, advertising revenues, primarily BIGO Ads, accounted for 20.8% of our total net revenues. Shopline operates a smart commerce SaaS model, deriving income from recurring software subscription fees and a suite of transaction-based value-added services, including localized payment processing (Shopline Payments), marketing, and cross-border logistics solutions. In 2025, e-commerce and other revenues collectively accounted for 7.1% of our total net revenues.

We have built a sizable global business with strong operating cashflow. Our total revenue amounted to US$2.3 billion in 2023, US$2.2 billion in 2024 and US$2.1 billion in 2025. Our net cash provided by operating activities was US$295.6 million in 2023, US$308.7 million in 2024 and US$302.3 million in 2025.

The structural evolution of our revenue mix, underpinned by the growing contribution of programmatic advertising and smart commerce, marks a significant inflection point in our corporate history. With a strong net cash position and a diversified portfolio of high-growth technology assets, we believe we are positioned to capture expanding long-term opportunities within the global advertising technology and smart commerce sectors and drive sustainable, long-term growth.

Our Strategy

Driving Multi-Engine Growth through Ecosystem Synergies. JOYY is a global technology company that seamlessly integrates social entertainment with a robust B2B technology stack. By unifying programmatic advertising and smart commerce SaaS solutions, JOYY provides a comprehensive ecosystem to facilitate digital engagement and commercial transformation, creating a self-reinforcing flywheel that empowers creators, advertisers and brand merchants worldwide.

Deepening Global Localization and Operational Excellence. We define our competitive advantage through a strategy of “Global Reach, Local Depth,” leveraging our established presence in over 150 countries to refine localized operations. We have built an extensive global operational network with approximately 30 regional offices and more than 5,400 local staff worldwide. We drive localized product iteration, tailoring the content of our social products and the features of our B2B solutions to specific cultural and regulatory environments. This granular approach cultivates deep user retention and customer loyalty that “one-size-fits-all” global competitors cannot easily replicate. Furthermore, we capitalize on our established localized operational networks to accelerate the international expansion of our B2B initiatives.

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Technology Backbone and AI-Powered Operations. We aim to strengthen our proprietary technology stack that serves as a structural advantage, bridging our global social engagement platforms with an integrated B2B technology suite. We have integrated artificial intelligence (AI) and data analytics into all critical aspects of our services and broader business operations. This acts as a central engine for both user engagement and commercial performance.

Our Platforms and Products

Core Global Social Entertainment Products

Bigo Live

Bigo Live is a leading global social live streaming platform. Bigo Live enables its users to share their life moments, showcase their talents, socialize and connect with other users from all around the world through live streaming. Launched in 2016, Bigo Live currently has a strong presence in North America, Europe, the Middle East and Southeast Asia, among others. Bigo Live is an international platform, available in 23 languages and approximately 150 countries.

Bigo Live has built an engaged, interactive and diverse community. Through extensive incentive programs, localized campaigns, and cross-industry partnerships, Bigo Live has attracted a substantial pool of creators and accumulated localized content across various categories, including music, dance, comedy, gaming and lifestyle.

Bigo Live currently monetizes its user base mainly through virtual tips for live streaming. Users can purchase in-app virtual items and send them as virtual gifts to their favorite streamers to show their appreciation.

Among the various platforms operated by us, Bigo Live is currently the largest revenue contributor. Bigo Live was ranked as the World’s No.9 Social App in terms of in-app-purchase revenue in 2025, according to the State of Mobile report from data.ai.

imo

imo is a global instant messenger that provides audio and video communication service to its users. It offers smooth and stable international video calls in addition to other features such as group calls and document sharing, catering to a variety of personal and business communication needs. imo has a large and engaged user base in South Asia and the Middle East.

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A core strategic advantage of imo is its ability to deliver stable, high-quality communication in diverse and challenging network environments. To serve users in regions with varying mobile infrastructure, imo utilizes a proprietary suite of technologies, including adaptive bitrate streaming and advanced packet loss concealment. These technical refinements ensure that imo maintains superior performance and connection stability in weak-network scenarios, driving organic retention in markets where reliable connectivity is a critical utility.

imo currently monetizes its user base mainly through advertisements and live streaming. In 2021, imo launched VoiceClub, an online real-time voice chat communication space, enabling users to establish connections with users beyond their existing network. VoiceClub also enables users to send virtual gifts to their friends to express their support and appreciation.

Imo was ranked as the No.4 and No.5 Social App in terms of downloads in United Arab Emirates and Saudi Arabia, respectively, in 2025, according to the State of Mobile report from data.ai.

Likee

Likee is a global short video social platform. Likee enables users to easily discover, create and share short videos, empowered by its easy, all-in-one video creation tools, such as filters and special effects, and its AI-backed personalized feed. Launched in 2017, Likee has a presence in the Middle East, Europe and Southeast Asia.

Likee currently monetizes its user base mainly through virtual tips for live streaming and advertisements. Likee was ranked United Arab Emirates’s No.10 Social App in terms of in-app-purchase revenue in 2025, according to the State of Mobile report from data.ai.

Hago

Hago is a social networking platform that encourages users to connect and have fun. Users can make new acquaintances by playing multiplayer casual games, join video & audio chat rooms based on their interests, create and customize their 3D avatars in Hago Space and join Groups or Families with like-minded people to foster more frequent communication. Launched in 2018, Hago has a presence mainly in Southeast Asia, the Middle East and South America.

Hago currently monetizes its user base mainly through virtual tips for live streaming.

B2B Initiatives: Advertising and Smart Commerce

BIGO Ads

BIGO Ads is a global AI-powered programmatic advertising platform, connecting advertisers and publishers with high-quality traffic from BIGO’s social apps and premium international developers. Operating as a sophisticated programmatic platform that provides one-stop marketing and monetization solutions, BIGO Ads leverages deep learning, real-time bidding, and smart bidding models (such as oCPC and ROAS optimization) to enable brands to scale user acquisition and app developers to effectively unlock monetization potentials through connecting premium global demand. We generate advertising revenues primarily by delivering advertisements on BIGO’s social apps, such as Likee and imo, and on properties of our network partners.

First-Party Inventory as Strategic Advantage: A key strategic differentiator for BIGO Ads is its vertical integration with our core social platforms, imo and Likee. This grants BIGO Ads exclusive first-party inventory and a robust repository of proprietary behavioral data, enabling us to provide a unique value proposition to advertisers seeking high-fidelity audience segments. The scale and depth of this first-party data are also instrumental in training our proprietary models.

Scalable Global Reach Through BIGO Audience Network: BIGO Ads benefits from our massive global MAU base and an extensive network of third-party traffic through seamless Software Development Kit (SDK) integrations with premium international developers. In 2025, BIGO Ads significantly scaled its third-party SDK network traffic through successful integration with major global mediation platforms, such as AppLovin MAX and Unity Level Play, resulting in a 166% year-over-year increase in SDK advertising requests in the fourth quarter of 2025.

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Continuous Algorithm Optimization and Growth Fly Wheel: BIGO Ads utilizes advanced Deep Learning and Real-Time Bidding Optimization to deliver measurable outcomes for global marketers. A key upgrade in 2025 was the enhanced IAA D7 ROAS optimization feature rolled out in the third quarter. The enhancement enables advertisers to acquire higher-quality users while maintaining strong return efficiency, allowing them to scale budgets with greater confidence. These technical enhancements drive a self-reinforcing flywheel: superior advertiser ROI attracts increased spending, which in turn incentivizes more third-party publishers to integrate with our SDK, further expanding our data assets and algorithmic accuracy.

In 2025, BIGO Ads achieved substantial growth in revenue, fueled by an expanding advertiser base and advertiser average spending, increased third-party traffic, and our strategic entry into new markets. In 2025, BIGO Ads revenue grew by 38.5% year-over-year to US$398.5 million.

Shopline

Shopline is a global smart commerce platform offering solutions and services empowering merchants to create and grow their brands online and reach customers worldwide, across different sales channels including e-commerce platforms, social commerce, and physical retail stores. Shopline provides merchants with various services to optimize their business operations, such as multi-channel inventory and sales management, logistics, payment, marketing and data analytics, among others. Shopline has helped merchants in diverse industries to launch and scale their online businesses.

Shopline currently generates revenues from recurring software subscription fees and a suite of transaction-based value-added services, including localized payment processing (Shopline Payments), marketing and cross-border logistics solutions.

Global Branding and Marketing

Branding Strategy

With our growing global presence and our diverse product offerings, we position ourselves as a global technology company with a mission to “enrich lives through technology.” We have established an ecosystem where our diverse brands, Bigo Live, Likee, imo, Hago, BIGO Ads, and Shopline, operate with architectural alignment, enabling us to reach a wide variety of coveted user and customer bases around the world.

Marketing Activities

We leverage a “Global Reach, Local Depth” approach, utilizing our extensive global operational network of approximately 30 regional offices and over 5,400 global staff to tailor marketing to specific cultural nuances. For our social entertainment businesses, we utilize a combination of ROI-focused advertising and diverse marketing activities to enhance our global brand recognition and attract users to our platforms. For BIGO Ads, our marketing focuses on building credibility and trust with global advertisers by highlighting our premium first-party traffic and localized operational insights. We leverage strategic partnerships with leading global mediation platforms—such as AppLovin MAX and Unity Level Play—to accelerate the adoption of our SDK among third-party developers, thereby expanding the BIGO Audience Network. For our smart commerce business, we utilize both online and offline marketing to maximize our brand awareness and attract new merchants and ecosystem partners. We organize product marketing and awareness-driven campaigns aimed at inspiring entrepreneurship and encouraging digitalized commerce. By attending offline exhibitions and industry summits, hosting global events and customer meetings, and promoting our digital community (Shopline Blog) and other educational materials, we expand our customer reach and promote our platform to more merchants (including small and medium-sized businesses as well as brand merchants) in terms of how to improve their operating efficiency and achieve business success with Shopline.

Seasonality

Our results of operations of various products and services are subject to seasonal fluctuations, many of which are outside our control. For a discussion of the factors that may contribute to fluctuations of our quarterly results, see “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—Our results of operations are subject to fluctuations due to seasonality and other factors.”

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Competition

We face competition in various aspects of our business. In relation to our global social entertainment products, we compete with companies that provide online live streaming and short video businesses, and we compete with other social networking and entertainment platforms in terms of user traffic and user time. Specifically, our competitors primarily include global short video platforms such as TikTok, and certain regional live streaming platforms. For our advertising business, we face competition from independent advertising technology platforms such as AppLovin and Unity, which provide marketing and monetization solutions. We also face competition from companies that provide smart commerce solutions for merchants, such as Shopify.

Technology

Our proprietary technologies serve as the backbone of our products and services.

Artificial Intelligence and Algorithm Technologies

Artificial intelligence serves as the center of JOYY’s proprietary technology stack. Our intelligent content recommendation algorithms, based on Deep Neural Networks and Graph Neural Network technology, effectively capture changes in each user’s personalized interest and caters to their demand in real time, giving users a one-of-a-kind entertainment experience. We filter audio and video content in real-time with millisecond latency, including comprehensive detection of improper or illegal content. In combination with our human content moderation team, this ensures compliance with the applicable laws and regulations regarding the provision of content via the internet, while enhancing content quality across our platforms.

For our B2B initiatives, our proprietary algorithms drive enhanced performance for our B2B technology suite. Utilizing deep learning and advanced neural networks, BIGO Ads delivers real-time bidding and automated bid optimization (including oCPC and ROAS optimization), enabling advertisers to achieve measurable gains. At Shopline, we introduced AI-powered merchant tools—including automated marketing and smart operations—to enhance merchant productivity and optimize operational costs across the retail lifecycle.

Quality of Service for Online Multi-media Communications

As a leading provider of large-scale multi-user voice and video-enabled online service, we are constantly working to improve our technological capabilities. Our ability to provide superior user experience is further supported by our highly scalable infrastructure, proprietary algorithms and software, and tailored devices for optimal live streaming performance, which help minimize latency, jitter and loss rates when delivering voice and video data even with a weak internet connection.

Quality of Service (QoS) assurance is a key element of any high-quality delivery of voice and video data over the internet. When it comes to voice- and video-based communications, any delays, jitters and loss of data are often immediately noticeable to users. We employ a voice-over internet protocol and multiple quality assurance mechanisms to minimize instances of these issues, including, but not limited to, cloud-based intelligence routing, low-bitrate redundant solution, upstream-forward error correction, and adaptive jitter. We have also designed a special intelligent routing algorithm that automatically seeks optimal ways of delivering voice and video data across our cloud-based network, enabling us to provide better QoS even when the QoS levels are lower on certain routes.

We utilize computer programs and employ standardized measurements to constantly analyze and evaluate our voice and video communication quality. We have set up formal procedures to handle different levels of server breakdowns and network-related emergencies, and our team of experts can discover and resolve issues promptly. We have developed a series of media technologies and revamped our streaming framework, which enables multimodal information to be synthetically utilized to provide highly flexible and customizable services.

Our adaptive audio and video encoding, transmission and decoding algorithms are conducive to delivering superior audio and video experiences based on users’ local setup, including locations, devices, network condition and personal preference, optimizing both fluency and latency at the same time.

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Large, Dedicated Cloud-based Network Infrastructure

In 2025, we continued to develop and improve our global data center network, to provide top-quality, real-time video and audio services to our users worldwide. Leveraging our established local servers and infrastructure located in many of our key markets, our infrastructure provides seamless integration and is highly customized for supporting our services with significant flexibility. Our team of experts developed a cloud-based network infrastructure specifically designed to handle multi-party voice and video-enabled real-time online interactions. Our cloud-based network infrastructure provides quality data delivery and enables many users to interact online from anywhere with ease and speed.

Our system is designed for scalability and reliability to support growth in our user base. Our large server network contributes significantly to our premium streaming experience and reliable services, and it can be expanded with comparative ease, given that we are able to flexibly expand our number of available servers through leasing additional data centers to accommodate additional user traffic and bandwidth needs. We believe that our current network facilities and broadband capacity is sufficient for our current operations, and we will constantly monitor our bandwidth needs and adjust our network capacity to reflect the latest number of peak concurrent users. As of the date of this annual report, our data centers are mainly located in Asia, Europe and the Americas. We rely on several key technological mechanisms to manage our server network, including optimized data access, automated switch of servers, and intelligent routing, which help ensure the quality of data transmission for our users globally. In response to poor connection situations, we are able to provide precise connection estimation, adaptive transcoding, segmentation-based coding and other advanced mechanisms to help users enjoy high-quality audio and video experience.

Proprietary Data-Driven Platform

To build up and operate infrastructure like ours requires significant time and effort. The technological difficulties faced by a platform that hosts 10,000 concurrent users differ greatly from the difficulties faced by a platform with 100,000 and 1,000,000 concurrent users. Many of these issues need to be considered at the early stages of programming the platform and planning the infrastructure. Over the years, we have gradually developed an effective system to identify, analyze and resolve issues that we encounter on a daily basis. In addition, our team members have been trained over the years to anticipate and resolve any issues, having accumulated significant knowledge from building and maintaining our platforms over time.

Safeguarding User Privacy

We dedicate significant resources to strengthening the user privacy functions of our platforms, promoting a safe online environment for our users. For example, we provide our users with adequate notice as to what data are being collected, and have implemented a variety of mechanisms and policies to prevent the unauthorized use, loss or leak of collected user data. Our data security technologies empower us to protect user data. For our external interfaces, we utilize firewalls to protect against potential attacks or unauthorized access. Our dedicated team of privacy professionals conducts regular reviews of our data security practices.

Content Moderation

Our live streaming, short video and video communication platforms and other products enable users to exchange information, generate and distribute content, advertise products and services, conduct business and engage in various other online activities. A team within our data security department helps in enforcing our internal procedures to ensure that the content in our system is compliant with applicable laws and regulations.

Each of our platforms updates its community guidelines from time to time to keep pace with the evolving requirements of digital safety. We utilize both AI-powered moderation systems and human moderation teams to enforce our community guidelines and internal standards and ensure a safe user environment.

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Regarding our AI-powered moderation systems, BIGO has developed various AI recognition models based on a database of millions of policy violations, and created a directory for filtering inappropriate content in more than 20 languages.

For our human moderation teams, we have deployed thousands of in-house and external dedicated content moderation personnel with local language proficiency and cultural understanding in a number of countries worldwide, including, but not limited to, Singapore, the Philippines, Bangladesh, Jordan, Indonesia, Thailand and Vietnam. We also outsourced some of our human content moderation functions to third-party vendors to improve operational adaptivity and flexibility.

Our content moderation team, together with our AI-empowered program, can sweep our platforms in real time and the data being conveyed in our system for sensitive key words or questionable materials. Content that contains certain keywords is automatically filtered by our program and cannot be successfully posted. We are thus able to minimize improper or illegal content on our platforms and remove such materials promptly after they are discovered. In addition, we formed partnerships with multiple industry players and worked with relevant authorities to jointly prevent and punish any potential malicious use of our platforms. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Our Business and Industry—We may face significant risks related to the content, information, communications and other activities on our platforms.”

Research and Development

We believe that our ability to deliver innovative internet and mobile applications and services tailored to our users’ needs has been a key factor for our success. As of December 31, 2025, our research and development team consisted of over 2,000 skilled professionals, all focused on designing and developing our proprietary products and various interactive technologies. Our research and development efforts drive continuous innovation across several key areas, including (a) the continued optimization of our content recommendation algorithms, AI-driven creative and social tools; (b) the continual improvement of our core audio and video data processing and streaming technologies to ensure seamless, high-quality experiences, (c) the ongoing maintenance and enhancement of network and server infrastructure to minimize latency and reduce interruptions, (d) new social features and functions to meet the demand of our users, including but not limited to PC-desktop, web and mobile applications, channel templates and virtual items, (e) development of AI-empowered tools and solutions that empower merchants to efficiently build and scale their commerce presence across multiple channels and regions, streamlining workflows and boosting operational efficiency, (f) optimization of the advertising engine to help advertisers efficiently target their audience, and (g) the establishment and continuous optimization of our AI-augmented product development architecture and infrastructure, with a strategic goal of accelerating concept-to-deployment cycle across our global product and services.

Leveraging big data and artificial intelligence, particularly in the areas of computer vision, natural language processing, automatic speech recognition and speech synthesis, our technologies have empowered many aspects of our operations, including our intelligent content recommendation engines, content moderation, and targeted advertising, which has enhanced user experience and operating efficiency.

Intellectual Property

We regard our patents, trademarks, domain names, copyrights, trade secrets, proprietary technologies and similar intellectual property as critical to our success. We seek to protect our intellectual property rights through a combination of patent, trademark, copyright and trade secret protection laws in various jurisdictions, as well as through confidentiality agreements and procedures with our employees, partners and others.

As of December 31, 2025, we held 1,707 registered domain names, including joyy.com, joyy.sg, Bigo.TV, Duowan.com, bigolive.sg, likee.com, shopline.com, 1,094 software copyrights and other copyrights, 3,074 patents and 2,747 trademarks and service marks. In addition, as of December 31, 2025, we had filed 4,927 patent applications, covering certain of our proprietary technologies, and 4,626 trademark applications.

Corporate Social Responsibility

JOYY’s mission is to enrich lives through technology. We are dedicated to integrating corporate social responsibility and sustainable development into major aspects of our business operations.

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Our commitment to corporate social responsibility and sustainable development aligns with our business strategy. With our social entertainment businesses, we endeavor to build trusted and safe social platforms for users of different backgrounds, and empower users to find their own voices and show their talents and content to a global audience. With our smart commerce business, we aim to lower the barriers to entrepreneurship via our integrated smart commerce solution platform and help entrepreneurs achieve business success.

Empowering Creators and Businesses. The evolvement of our business and ecosystem has created increasing economic opportunity for individuals, businesses and communities. By providing creator-friendly video creation tools and monetization features, and cultivating a community that empowers and encourages our creators to express themselves freely, BIGO has established a creator-centric ecosystem that enables a large number of creators to showcase their talents in front of a global audience. At the same time, it enables creators to realize economic returns, creating opportunities for employment and development in local communities. Supported by our global operations team, BIGO has rolled out a variety of online activities tailored to local users’ ever-evolving needs, empowering our creators to gain exposure both locally and internationally, and enabling them to realize new levels of personal and professional success. Meanwhile, Shopline’s integrated smart commerce solutions and education campaigns have equipped small-and medium-sized businesses with the essential tools for starting and growing a business, lowering the entry barriers into different markets and unlocking economic value in the relevant regions.

Empowering Education and Entrepreneurship. We invest in developing future talent and fostering innovation. In June 2023, BIGO announced its Singapore-Jordan Incubation Program in collaboration with the Singapore Business Federation. The initiative supports Singaporean startups looking to venture into the Middle East and North Africa region through Jordan, offering six months of free co-working space, business matchmaking, networking opportunities, and assistance with employment permits and establishing a local presence in Jordan. In 2024, Clean Kinetics Pte Ltd became the first participant, marking a milestone in promoting cross-regional innovation. In 2025, Bigo Live partnered with the Yayasan Peduli Anak (Care for Children Foundation) in Indonesia to donate funds toward children’s education programs. By integrating online talent shows and cultural broadcasts with offline donations, we fostered a sense of community responsibility while providing tangible support for the academic advancement of underprivileged youth.

Community Support and Cultural Engagement. As we operate in a number of markets across the globe, our users are from different backgrounds and have distinctive needs. We strive to design our social products and cultivate local content to resonate with diverse local cultures and user interests. Our community initiatives promote inclusion and cultural engagement. In 2025, Bigo Live partnered with Union Station Homeless Services in the U.S. for the “Grateful Streams” initiative, pledging funds and utilizing creator-led content to raise awareness and provide thousands of Thanksgiving meals for unhoused individuals and families. In Southeast Asia, we participated in the “Kongsi Rezeki: Tahfiz Berselawat 2025” program in Malaysia, a cross-sector collaboration that raised funds to support vulnerable children with cancer, and low-income families during the Ramadan period.

Cultivating an Inclusive Workplace. We are committed to building a diverse and inclusive workspace for our global employees. We offer comprehensive training programs, including onboarding, leadership development, compliance and technology trends, through offline sessions and our online training system. We provide our employees with access to a variety of programs and facilities designed to promote sustainable wellness for our employees, such as gyms, health talks and fitness sessions.

Regulations in Multiple Jurisdictions Where We Operate

As our globalized operations evolve, we may, from time to time, be subject to government regulations. As the live streaming, short video, mobile advertising and smart commerce businesses are still at an early stage of development in the jurisdictions where we have presence, new laws and regulations may be adopted from time to time to require new licenses and permits in addition to those we currently have. This section sets forth the most important laws and regulations that govern our current business activities in multiple jurisdictions across the globe, including European Union, India, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia, Vietnam and mainland China.

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Regulations on Data Privacy and Protection

General Data Protection Regulation—European Union

The General Data Protection Regulation, or GDPR, regulates the collection and use of personal data in the EU. The GDPR covers any business, regardless of its location, that provides goods or services to residents in the EU and, thus, could incorporate our activities in EU member states. The GDPR imposes strict requirements on controllers and processors of personal data, including special protections for “sensitive information,” which includes health and genetic information of individuals in the EU. GDPR grants individuals the opportunity to object to the processing of their personal information, allows them to request deletion of personal information in certain circumstances, and provides the individual with an express right to seek legal remedies in the event the individual believes his or her rights have been violated. Further, the GDPR imposes strict rules on the transfer of personal data out of the EU to regions that have not been deemed to offer “adequate” privacy protections. Failure to comply with the requirements of the GDPR and the related national data protection laws of the EU member states, which may deviate slightly from the GDPR, may result in warning letters, reprimands, temporary or definitive restrictions including a ban on data processing, mandatory audits and financial penalties, including fines of up to 4 percent of global revenues of the preceding financial year, or €20,000,000, whichever is greater. As a result of the implementation of the GDPR, we may be required to put in place additional mechanisms ensuring compliance with the new data protection rules.

There is significant uncertainty related to the manner in which data protection authorities will seek to enforce compliance with GDPR. For example, GDPR grants Data Protection Authorities (DPAs) broad investigative and enforcement powers to conduct proactive audits as well as respond to complaints, but it is unclear how the DPAs will conduct random proactive audits of companies doing business in the EU, or act solely after complaints are filed claiming a violation of the GDPR. Also, the initiation requirements and implementation details of some procedures are left to be stipulated by the procedural laws of the EU or member states, and cannot be directly applied uniformly through the GDPR. For instance, Article 58 of the GDPR stipulates that a supervisory authority’s access to any premises of the controller and the processor, including any data processing equipment and means, is subject to EU or member state procedural law. This requires companies to separately assess risks and formulate compliance requirements based on the specific circumstances and regulations of each member country. In addition, under certain conditions, the GDPR could also be able to apply to companies that are not in Europe. Although GDPR guidance, case law, and enforcement procedures have become more developed, interpretation and enforcement may remain fact-specific, and GDPR compliance may still require substantial resources and costs.

On December 22, 2023, the regulation on harmonized rules on fair access to and use of data, officially known as the EU’s Data Act (Regulation (EU) 2023/2854), was published in the EU’s Official Journal. This regulation sets up new rules on who can access and use data generated in the EU across all economic sectors. The regulation came into effect on January 11, 2024, and most of its rules took effect from September 12, 2025. It lays down rules on business-to-business and business-to-customer data access, establishes a ban on unfair contractual terms on data sharing, and introduces restrictions to non-EU governmental access and international transfers of non-personal data, by requiring providers of data processing services to take technical, organizational and legal measures to prevent unlawful access and transfers. Since most of the Data Act’s rules became applicable, it has affected, and may continue to affect, our business, particularly where our operations involve connected devices, cloud services and data-sharing arrangements, particularly in relation to data access and use, contractual terms, cloud switching and portability, and related compliance obligations.

Finally, Regulation (EU) 2025/2518 has been published and will become applicable from April 2, 2027. It is intended to complement and clarify certain procedural aspects of GDPR enforcement, in particular by introducing harmonized rules on the handling of complaints, ex officio investigations, cooperation in cross-border cases, as well as rights related to hearings and access to documents. Once it becomes applicable, it may contribute to a better understanding of the procedural framework for GDPR enforcement.

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California Consumer Privacy Act—California, United States

In the United States, numerous federal and state laws, rules, and regulations, including data breach notification laws, and federal and state consumer protection laws and regulations (e.g., Section 5 of the FTC Act), that govern the collection, use, disclosure, protection, and other processing of personal information apply to our operations or the operations of our partners. For example, the California Consumer Privacy Act, or CCPA, which became effective in January 2020, gives California residents expanded rights to access and delete their personal information, opt out of certain personal information sharing, and receive detailed information about how their personal information is used by requiring covered companies to provide new disclosures to California consumers (as that term is broadly defined and may include any of our current or future employees who may be California residents) and provide such residents new ways to opt out of certain sales of personal information. The CCPA provides for severe civil penalties for violations as well as a private right of action for data breaches that result in the loss of personal information that is expected to increase data breach litigation. Further, in November 2020, California voters passed the California Privacy Rights Act, or CPRA, which took effect on January 1, 2023. The CPRA significantly expands the CCPA, including by introducing additional obligations on covered companies, such as data minimization and storage limitations, granting additional rights to consumers, such as correction of personal information and additional opt-out rights, and creates a new entity, the California Privacy Protection Agency, to implement and enforce the law. Other state legislatures are currently contemplating, and may pass, their own comprehensive data privacy and security laws, with potentially greater penalties and more rigorous compliance requirements relevant to our business, and many state legislatures have already adopted legislation that regulates how businesses operate online, including measures relating to privacy, data security, data breaches and the protection of sensitive and personal information. While state laws continue to change rapidly, there has also been discussion in U.S. Congress of a new comprehensive federal data protection law.

Information Technology Act 2000—India

India’s data privacy regulations are primarily governed by two sets of frameworks.

The first is a system of laws and regulations centered on the Information Technology Act 2000 (as amended by Information Technology (Amendment) Act of 2008), which governs the data privacy regulations in India. The Information Technology Act 2000 contains three provisions on data protection and privacy. Section 43A provides that we are subject to civil liability to compensate for wrongful loss or gain to any person arising from negligence in implementing and maintaining reasonable security practices and procedures with respect to sensitive personal data or information that we possess, deal with or handle in our computer systems, networks, databases and software. It should be noted that Section 44(2) of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, which will take effect 18 months after November 13, 2025, stipulates the deletion of Section 43A of the Information Technology Act, 2000. Section 72A provides for imprisonment for a term which may extend to three years or fines which may extend to five lakh rupees, or both, if, in the course of performing a contract, a service provider discloses personal information without the consent of the person concerned or in breach of a lawful contract and he or she does so with the intention to cause, or knowing he or she is likely to cause, wrongful loss or wrongful gain. Section 72 prescribes imprisonment for a term which may extend to two years or fines which may extend to one lakh rupees, or both, if a government official discloses records and information accessed by him or her in the course of his or her duties without the consent of the concerned person or unless permitted by other laws. Section 79 provides safe harbor protection to internet service providers from being held liable for third-party information or data made available by such internet service providers that they have no knowledge of or that they had exercised all due diligence to prevent.

The other framework comprises personal data protection regulations centered on the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 and the Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025. Even prior to the introduction of these two frameworks, India had already issued privacy laws, including: (i) the Information Technology (Procedure and Safeguards for Blocking for Access of Information by Public) Rules, 2009, which imposes obligations on intermediaries, including compliance with emergency blocking directions, appointing a designated officer for handling such directives, and facing penalties for non-compliance, (ii) the Information Technology (Reasonable Security Practices and Procedures and Sensitive Personal Data or Information) Rules, 2011, which impose limitations and restrictions on the collection, use and disclosure of personal information, and (iii) the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021, which provides for checks and balances on social media companies by setting timelines for removal of unlawful content.

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Starting from November 13, 2025, the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, which is the core law for personal information protection, has been coming into effect in a phased manner. Also, the Digital Personal Data Protection Rules, 2025 were notified on 14 November 2025 and have been coming into force in phases since that date, which primarily serve as the operational and implementing rules for the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023. Based on these two legal instruments, a person may process the personal data of a Data Principal only in accordance with the provisions of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act and for a lawful purpose (a) for which the Data Principal has given her consent. The consent given by the Data Principal shall be free, specific, informed, unconditional and unambiguous with a clear affirmative action, and shall signify an agreement to the processing of her personal data for the specified purpose and be limited to such personal data as is necessary for such specified purpose, or (b) for certain legitimate uses.

Also, the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 provides that, irrespective of any agreement to the contrary or any failure of the Data Principal to perform her duties under this Act, the person who alone or in conjunction with other persons determines the purpose and means of processing of personal data (“Data Fiduciary”) shall be responsible for complying with the provisions of this Act and the rules made thereunder in respect of any processing undertaken by it or on its behalf by a Data Processor. A Data Fiduciary may engage, appoint, use, or otherwise involve a Data Processor to process personal data on its behalf, in connection with the offering of goods or services to Data Principals, only under a valid contract. Where personal data processed by a Data Fiduciary is likely to be used to make a decision affecting the Data Principal or to be disclosed to another Data Fiduciary, the Data Fiduciary shall ensure the completeness, accuracy, and consistency of such data. In addition, the Data Fiduciary shall implement appropriate technical and organizational measures to protect personal data in its possession or under its control, including data processed on its behalf by a Data Processor, by taking reasonable security safeguards to prevent personal data breaches. In the event of a personal data breach, the Data Fiduciary shall notify the regulatory authority and the affected Data Principals in the manner prescribed. If the foregoing provisions are violated, the Data Fiduciary may be subject to penalties imposed by the Indian regulatory authority.

Personal Data Protection Act 2012—Singapore

An organization collecting, using or disclosing personal data is subject to the Personal Data Protection Act 2012 of Singapore, as amended from time to time. Any information, whether true or not, that may be used to identify a natural person either directly from the data, or from the data and other information that the organization has access to, is considered “personal data.” Examples may include an individual’s name, date of birth, identity card number, passport number, residential address, characteristics and fingerprints, among others. The personal data that is protected under the Personal Data Protection Act 2012 of Singapore excludes personal data that is publicly available and personal data that is disclosed under any written law. The Personal Data Protection Act 2012 of Singapore also does not apply to business contact information, such as an individual’s name, title, business address, business telephone number, business e-mail address, or other similar information about an individual that is not provided solely for his/her personal purposes.

When an organization processes personal data, it must procure the individual’s consent for the collection, use and/or disclosure of his/her personal data. Therefore, the individual should be notified of the purposes for which his personal data is collected, used or disclosed. Consent can also be deemed to be given by individuals in some cases. The scenarios where implied consent can be deemed to be obtained have recently been expanded to include situations such as (i) where the consent is reasonably necessary for concluding the contract between the individual and the organization, and (ii) where the organization conducts an assessment to determine that the collection, use or disclosure of the personal data is not likely to have an adverse effect on the individual, reasonable steps are taken to bring the prescribed information (including the organization’s intention to process and purpose for processing personal data) to the attention of the individual, and where the individual does not notify the organization that he/she does not consent to the proposed processing of the personal data. There are also certain exceptions to the consent requirement, which include the collection, use and disclosure of personal data for vital interests of individuals, matters affecting the public, legitimate interests of the organization, business asset transactions, business improvement and research. Recently, the Personal Data Protection Commission of Singapore has released guidelines which state that organizations intending to process personal data for the purpose of developing or implementing AI models into their workflow can consider relying on the legitimate interest, business improvement and research exceptions to consent, where relevant. The Commission also emphasized the need for organizations using AI systems to remain accountable and transparent with their data subjects, whether through the use of written policies or otherwise.

Under the Personal Data Protection Act 2012 of Singapore, individuals have clearly defined rights, such as the right to access their personal data, request information on how their personal data has been used, and correct any inaccuracies in the personal data held by the organization. The organization should designate a Data Protection Officer for this purpose. The organization must take reasonable steps to ensure the accuracy of the personal data recorded and put security arrangements in place to protect the personal data.

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Furthermore, when transferring personal data outside of Singapore, care must be taken to ensure that the recipient organization is bound by legally enforceable obligations or specified certifications to afford the personal data with a standard of protection that is comparable to that established by the Personal Data Protection Act 2012 of Singapore. Legally enforceable obligations may be imposed via the applicable law, a contract, binding corporate rules or any other legally binding instrument. On March 2, 2026, the Personal Data Protection (Amendment) Regulations 2026 entered into force, which expands the scope of recognized certifications that satisfy the requirement for legally enforceable obligations when transferring personal data outside Singapore. The 2026 amendment adds the Global Privacy Recognition for Processors System and the Global Cross-Border Privacy Rules System to the list of recognized certifications. Specifically, for recipients acting as data intermediaries, the list now includes the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) Privacy Recognition for Processors System, the APEC Cross-Border Privacy Rules System, the Global Privacy Recognition for Processors System, and the Global Cross-Border Privacy Rules System. For other recipients, the recognized certifications are the APEC Cross-Border Privacy Rules System, with the new addition of the Global Cross-Border Privacy Rules System. The aim of this modification is to facilitate secure international data flows by aligning local requirements with global privacy frameworks.

Where a data breach involving the disclosure of personal data has occurred, the organization is required to take reasonable and expeditious steps to assess the data breach. In some cases, the organization may be required to report the data breach to the Personal Data Protection Commission, and the affected individuals. Where the organization is acting as a data intermediary that is processing the personal data for another organization, the data intermediary is required to notify the organization of any data breaches in a timely manner.

Individuals who knowingly or recklessly cause the unauthorized disclosure of personal data or improper use of personal data in the control of an organization may be liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding $5,000 or imprisonment not exceeding two years or both. Further, the maximum financial penalty that may be imposed on an organization for contravention of the Personal Data Protection Act’s provisions has recently been increased to be up to 10% of an organization’s annual turnover in Singapore (where it exceeds S$10 million), or S$1 million, whichever is higher.

Personal Data Protection—Indonesia

On October 17, 2022, Law No. 27 of 2022 on Personal Data Protection, or the PDP Law, was enacted and came into effect, providing a new framework for personal data protection in Indonesia. To the extent provisions in existing and separate regulations relating to privacy and/or personal data protection in Indonesia such as The Minister of Communication and Information Regulation No. 20 of 2016 on Personal Data Protection in Electronic Systems and Government Regulation No. 71 of 2019 on the Provision of Electronic System and Transactions, or collectively the General Data Protection Regulations, do not conflict with the PDP Law, the non-conflicting provisions in these General Data Protection Regulations remain valid. These General Data Protection Regulations set out the rules governing the protection of personal data that are stored in electronic form while PDP Law governs protection of personal data that are stored both in electronic and non-electronic forms. The PDP Law introduces the definitions of “Personal Data Controllers” and “Personal Data Processors,” which were previously limited to “electronic system provider” under the General Data Protection Regulations. The Personal Data Controllers, either individually or jointly with other parties, determine the purpose and control the processing of personal data, while the Personal Data Processors, either individually or jointly with other parties, act on behalf of the Personal Data Controllers to process personal data as stipulated in Article 1 points 4 and 5 of the PDP Law. The PDP Law requires any action taken in relation to the processing of personal data by either Personal Data Controllers and Personal Data Processors, including acquisition and collection, processing and analysis, storage, correction and updates, display, announcement, transfer, dissemination, disclosure, and deletion or destruction, to be subject to provisions of the PDP Law, such as requiring prior consent of the owner of such personal data. Further, under the PDP Law, the Personal Data Controllers and Personal Data Processors are imposed with a comprehensive set of obligations, including: (i) adoption of internal data protection and security policies, (ii) performing an impact assessment for any high-risk personal data processing, (iii) providing access to the personal data that is processed along with the track record of the processing in accordance with the storage period, (iv) appointment of a data protection officer by Personal Data Controllers or Personal Data Processors to carry out personal data protection functions, and (v) for overseas transfer of personal data, ensuring the recipient country has an equal or higher personal data protection governance than the PDP Law, or otherwise, ensuring that there is adequate and binding protection, or if the foregoing is not available, consent from the personal data subjects. The condition above is aligned with Article 24 of the PDP Law, which stipulates that, in the case of processing personal data as mentioned above, the Personal Data Controller is obliged to provide evidence of the consent that has been given by the Personal Data Subject.

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The General Data Protection Regulations clarify the data localization requirement by specifying that such requirement applies only to “public electronic systems providers” (i.e., central and regional executive, legislative, judicative bodies and any other bodies established pursuant to a statutory mandate, and entities appointed by the public bodies to operate electronic systems on their behalf). Meanwhile, a private provider can choose whether to process and/or host its electronic systems and data onshore or offshore. Regardless of the location, such provider must ensure that its electronic systems and data are accessible to the authority. However, this flexibility does not apply to private operators in the banking and financial services sectors.

In the event of a data breach, the PDP Law requires the Personal Data Controllers to deliver written notification no later than 72 hours to the personal data subjects and to the personal data protection authority. If the Personal Data Controllers or the Personal Data Processors fail to comply with the PDP Law, they may be subject to sanctions in the form of warnings or written reprimands, temporary suspensions of personal data processing activities, forced deletion or destruction of personal data, and administrative fines of up to 2% of annual revenue or income of the Personal Data Controller or the Personal Data Processor may be imposed. If corporations fail to comply with PDP Law, they may be subject to criminal fines as well as license revocation and liquidation.

As of the date of this annual report, Indonesia has further announced several industry-specific rules to supplement the provisions of the PDP Law and implement personal data protection. Government Regulation No. 17 of 2025 on the governance of electronic system operators in child protection introduced child-focused risk assessment requirements for electronic products, services and features, including risks related to child data collection, public disclosure of children’s personal data, privacy-setting changes without parental consent, and threats to the security of children’s personal data. Minister of Communication and Digital Regulation No. 9 of 2026 further implemented these requirements by establishing self-assessment, reporting, verification and risk-profiling procedures for products, services and features that may be accessed by children. In the telecommunications sector, Minister of Communication and Digital Regulation No. 7 of 2026 on mobile subscriber registration introduced additional safeguards relating to customer identity data, biometric verification, confidentiality obligations and information security certification.

Personal Data Protection—Vietnam

Until April 17, 2023, Vietnam did not have a single comprehensive data protection legal document. Instead, data protection provisions were prescribed across various laws and their corresponding guiding Decrees and Circulars, such as the Constitution, the Civil Code, the Law on Protection of Consumers’ Rights, the Law on Information Technology, etc., which regulate on different aspects of the data protection matter. In particular, the Constitution and the Civil Code provides basic principles on the right to privacy of individuals, while the Law on Protection of Consumers’ Rights and Decree 52/2013/ND-CP, amended by Decree 85/2021/ND-CP, on E-commerce regulate on the consumer protection aspect, the Law on Information Technology stipulates requirements for collecting, processing and using personal information on the Internet, etc. The laws in Vietnam are all adopted by the National Assembly of Vietnam, while the Decrees and Circulars are issued by lower-level authority, which are respectively the Government and relevant Ministries.

On November 19, 2015, the Vietnam National Assembly passed the Law on Cyber Information Security, which sets forth regulations on cyber information security. Accordingly, individuals and companies must implement measures to assure the security of cyber information. For example, entities providing information technology services must comply with regulations on the storage and use of personal information, apply blocking and handling measures upon receipt of a notice that sending such information is illegal, and implement measures to allow recipients to refuse the receipt of information. Moreover, the owners of the personal information (i.e., the data subjects) are also provided the right to request for updating, alteration and cancellation of the personal information by the data processor. On the other hand, the Law on Cyber Information Security and its guiding document also provided certain requirements regarding notification of a data breach and other cyber information security incidents. This law, officially designated as Law No. 86/2015/QH13 on Network Information Security, was later amended by Law No. 35/2018/QH14 dated November 20, 2018, which introduced changes to certain provisions concerning the planning of 37 laws (“Network Information Security Law”).

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On June 12, 2018, the Vietnam National Assembly passed the Law on Cybersecurity which regulates that any foreign service provider in certain fields such as e-payment, e-commerce, online games is required to have a commercial presence in Vietnam (such as branch, representative office) and to localize the user’s data in Vietnam. Then, the government issued Decree No. 53/2022/ND-CP on August 15, 2022 to provide further details on a number of articles of the Law on Cybersecurity. Accordingly, it clarifies that foreign cyberspaces service providers engaged in (a) telecommunications services; (b) storing and sharing data in cyberspace; (c) providing national or international domain names to service users in Vietnam; (d) e-commerce; (e) online payment; (f) payment intermediary services; (g) transport connection services through cyberspace; (h) social networks and social media; (i) online video games; and (j) services that provide, manage, or operate other information on cyberspace in the form of messages, voice calls, video calls, e-mails, online chats must store such data in Vietnam for at least 24 months and set up a branch or representative office in Vietnam if requested in writing by Minister of the Ministry of Public Security.

On April 17, 2023, the Vietnam Government issued Decree 13/2023/ND-CP on Personal Data Protection, or the Decree 13 —the first comprehensive legal document on personal data protection in Vietnam, which came into effect on July 1, 2023. Unlike other decrees which are to clarify and provide further guidelines on provisions of the relevant law, the Decree 13 provides new and independent requirements on personal data protection, in harmony with similar provisions under the current legal framework. In particular, the Decree 13 provides a unified definition of personal data, which is defined as “information in the form of symbols, letters, numbers, images, sounds or similar on an electronic environment that is associated with a particular person or helps to identify a particular person. Personal data include basic personal data and sensitive personal data.” “Information that helps to identify a specific person” is further clarified as “information formed from the activities of an individual that, when combined with other data and stored information, can identify a specific person.” Apart from unifying previous concepts regulated in various legal documents, the Decree 13 has also adopted certain contents from the well-known General Data Protection Regulations from the EU, which provided new concepts and stricter requirements not yet been regulated in previous legal documents on personal data protection such as: basic personal data, sensitive personal data, data controller, data protection impact assessment, processing personal data obtained through public recordings and filming, processing personal data in advertising and so on. On the other hand, the Decree 13 also requires entities (both foreign and Vietnam-based) relating to personal data processing activities to notify the Department of Cyber Security and Hi-tech Crime Prevention under the Ministry of Public Security upon (i) occurrence of a violation of personal data protection (i.e., a data breach); and (ii) conducting a cross-border personal data transfer. Furthermore, data subject rights and obligations, specific responsibilities of data controllers, data processors and third parties are also specified under this document.

On November 9, 2024, Vietnam’s government introduced Decree No. 147/2024/ND-CP (hereinafter, the “new decree”), a landmark regulation governing the management, provision, and use of internet services and online information. Replacing the decade-old Decree No. 72/2013/ND-CP and its subsequent amendments, this new decree took effect on December 25, 2024, signaling a significant shift in Vietnam’s approach to regulating its rapidly evolving digital landscape. This decree covers an extensive range of topics. These include the management of internet services, domain names, cross-border information provision, social networks, online games, app stores, and telecom application services. It also introduces stringent measures to control illegal content and sets out detailed responsibilities for various stakeholders, including telecom operators, internet providers, data centers, and web hosting services.

On November 30, 2024, the Data Law was passed by the National Assembly, and it came into effect on July 1, 2025. Officially designated as Law No. 60/2024/QH15 on Data, this law will help gradually establish a data market and promote the country’s digital transformation. It has 5 chapters and 46 articles, which clearly stipulate digital data; construction, development, protection, management, processing, and use of digital content; national data center; national aggregate database; digital data products and services; digital data management; and the rights, obligations, and responsibilities of digital data agencies, organizations, and individuals.

On December 10, 2025, Vietnam passed the new Cybersecurity Law (116/2025/QH15). This law will come into effect on July 1, 2026, and the original Law on Cybersecurity (24/2018/QH14) will become invalid from that date. Regarding data security, Law No. 116/2025/QH15 prohibits the appropriation, trading, seizure, or intentional disclosure of information containing state secrets, work secrets, or trade secrets; the appropriation, trading, seizure, or intentional disclosure of personal secrets, family secrets, and privacy that affect the honor, reputation, dignity, rights, and legitimate interests of authorities, organizations, or individuals; the intentional eavesdropping or unlawful recording of audio or video of conversations in cyberspace; the disclosure of information on civil cryptographic products or information on customers lawfully using civil cryptographic products; and the use or trading of civil cryptographic products of unknown origin. Moreover, Article 25 of Law No. 116/2025/QH15 stipulates the obligations of platforms and network service providers regarding account and data control, including verifying the registration information of digital accounts, protecting user information and accounts; providing information to competent authorities upon request; removing illegal content; maintaining system logs; and storing users’ names, usage time, payment information, access IP addresses, and other personal information and data generated during service use.

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On January 1, 2026, Vietnam’s new Personal Information Law (No. 91/2025/QH15) came into force. This law provides that personal data is digital data or information in other forms that identify or help identify a specific person, including basic personal data and sensitive personal data. Personal data that has been de-identified is no longer considered personal data. Second, Article 20 of the law stipulates that cross-border personal data transfer includes transferring data stored within Vietnam to foreign countries, transferring data by Vietnamese entities to foreign entities, and using foreign platforms to process data collected in Vietnam. Entities conducting cross-border transfers are generally required to submit a cross-border impact assessment dossier within 60 days from the date of the first transfer and update it as required. The competent authority may also require the suspension of data transfers if such transfers are found to affect national security. Finally, Article 37 of the law provides that a personal data processor shall first enter into a personal data processing agreement with the personal data controller or a controller-cum-processor before receiving personal data. The processor shall handle the data in accordance with the agreement, adopt protective measures, bear liability for damages caused by processing, and prevent unauthorized collection of personal data from its systems and equipment.

Decree No. 356/2025/NĐ-CP also came into force on January 1, 2026. It is the implementing regulation of the Personal Information Law (No. 91/2025/QH15) and operationalizes the principles set out in the law, focusing on personal data classification, consent mechanisms, personal data transfer agreements, cross-border transfer impact assessment, and timelines for handling data subject requests.

Personal Data Protection—Malaysia

The Personal Data Protection Act 2010 (“PDPA 2010”) regulates the processing of personal data in commercial transactions. The PDPA 2010 applies insofar as the personal data of a customer is processed (for example, name, identification card number, address, phone number, e-mail address). The definition of “personal data” under the PDPA 2010 includes any information in respect of commercial transactions, which relates directly or indirectly to a data subject, who is identified or identifiable from that information or from that and other information in the possession of a data controller, including any sensitive personal data (which includes biometric data) and expression of opinion about the data subject. The PDPA 2010 sets out seven (7) personal data protection principles to be complied with, namely General Principle, Notice and Choice Principle, Disclosure Principle, Security Principle, Retention Principle, Data Integrity Principle, and Access Principle. Additionally, the Personal Data Protection Regulations 2013 and the Personal Data Protection Standard 2015 set out in detail the requirements to be complied with in respect of the seven (7) principles. Personal data can now be transferred to places outside Malaysia provided that place has adequate data protection laws, which are at least equivalent to the level of protection afforded by the PDPA 2010. In 2025, the Personal Data Protection (Amendment) Act 2024 came into effect in phases, focusing on establishing the appointment of a data protection officer and the data breach notification system. Specifically, the amendment stipulated a data controller shall appoint one or more data protection officers who shall be accountable to the data controller for the compliance with this Act. Where a data controller has reason to believe that a personal data breach has occurred, the data controller shall, as soon as practicable, notify the Commissioner (as defined in the amendment) in the manner and form as determined by the Commissioner. Where the personal data breach under the aforementioned causes or likely to cause any significant harm to the data subject, the data controller shall notify the personal data breach to the data subject in the manner and form as determined by the without unnecessary delay. A data controller who contravenes the preceding provisions commits an offence and shall, on conviction, be liable to a fine not exceeding two hundred and fifty thousand ringgit or imprisonment for a term not exceeding two years or to both.

The General Code of Practice of Personal Data Protection sets out the best practices for data controllers in meeting the PDPA 2010 requirements when undertaking commercial transactions, by further elaborating the seven (7) principles enumerated in the PDPA 2010. In particular, the General Code of Practice of Personal Data Protection clarifies the manner in which consent obtained from data subjects can be recorded and maintained. Such consent can be obtained in various forms, including through a clickable box, by conduct or performance, or verbally. The relevant data controllers are required to develop and implement appropriate compliance policies and procedures to ensure compliance with the General Code of Practice of Personal Data Protection and the PDPA 2010. In 2025, the Personal Data Protection Department also issued the Personal Data Protection Guidelines on Data Breach Notification, the Personal Data Protection Guidelines on the Appointment of Data Protection Officer, and the Personal Data Protection Guidelines on Cross-Border Transfer of Personal Data, which provide clearer guidance for data compliance.

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The Personal Data Protection Code of Practice for Licensees under the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 outlines guidelines for the communications sector in Malaysia to comply with the PDPA 2010. In addition to the seven (7) principles enumerated in the PDPA 2010, the Personal Data Protection Code of Practice for Licensees under the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 covers best practices for data management in the communications sector, including the use of clear and concise privacy notices, the implementation of access controls and data retention policies, and the use of encryption and other security measures to protect personal data (as well as pre-existing data collected and processed prior to the effectiveness of the PDPA 2010). In addition, the Personal Data Protection Code of Practice for Licensees under the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 outlines the requirements for cross-border data transfers, which involve the transfer of personal data outside of Malaysia, which include obtaining consent from data subjects, ensuring that the receiving country provides an adequate level of protection for personal data and implementing appropriate contractual and technical safeguards to protect personal data during the transfer process.

The General Consumer Code of Practice for the Communications and Multimedia Industry Malaysia sets out the obligations in relation to the protection of personal information and sets out the rules in respect of the protection of consumer (including consumer with special needs or disabilities) information policy and principles on notice, disclosure, consent, choice, data security, data quality and access. Accordingly, a service provider may collect and maintain necessary data/information of consumers for tracking practices, provided that the collection and maintenance of such data/information shall be fairly and lawfully collected and processed, processed for limited purposes, adequate, relevant and not excessive, accurate, not kept longer than necessary, processed in accordance with the data subject’s rights, secure and not transferred to any party without the consumer’s prior approval. Consumers must also be given the opportunity to exercise their choice in respect of how individually identifiable information collected from them may be used.

Personal Data Protection—Saudi Arabia

The Saudi Arabia Personal Data Protection Law, as amended, has been implemented by Royal Decree No. M/19 of 9/2/1443H (September 16, 2021) and amended by Royal Decree No. M/147 of 5/9/1444H (March 21, 2023), and came into effect on September 14, 2023. The Saudi Arabia Personal Data Protection Law is the main law in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia regulating the use of personal data. The personal data defined in the Saudi Arabia Personal Data Protection Law includes any data, regardless of its source or form, that may lead to identifying an individual specifically, or that may directly or indirectly make it possible to identify an individual, including name, personal identification number, addresses, contact numbers, license numbers, records, personal assets, bank and credit card numbers, photos and videos of an individual, and any other data of personal nature. The Saudi Arabia Personal Data Protection Law also provides for a separate concept of sensitive data. It includes personal data revealing racial or ethnic origin, or religious, intellectual or political belief, security data, data relating to criminal offenses, biometric or genetic data, health data, and data that indicates that one or both of the individual’s parents are unknown.

The Saudi Arabia Personal Data Protection Law applies to the processing of personal data that takes place in the territory of the Kingdom, and also applies extra-territorially to non-Saudi entities that process the personal data of individuals residing in Saudi Arabia. The provisions, requirements, and conditions set forth in the Saudi Arabia Personal Data Protection Law do not apply to the processing of personal data by an individual for personal or family use, as long as the personal data is not published or disclosed to others.

In 2025, Saudi Arabia issued the General Rules for Secondary Use of Data and launched the SDAIA Sandbox Program for personal data protection, which support the existing Saudi Arabia Personal Data Protection Law framework. The General Rules for Secondary Use of Data establish controls and procedures governing data-sharing requests, including the requirement of a legitimate purpose, compliance with the data minimization principle, consent in specified cases, data retention and destruction arrangements, restrictions on permitted use, liability allocation, and applicable processing timeframes. The SDAIA Sandbox Program is a regulatory support program that allows startups to test and develop privacy-related technological solutions in a controlled environment, with a focus on Privacy by Design and Privacy-Enhancing Technologies, and it is intended to ensure compliance with the Saudi Arabia Personal Data Protection Law.

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Data and Privacy Protection—mainland China

The Cyber Security Law (Amended in 2025) imposes certain data protection obligations on network operators, including that network operators may not disclose, tamper with, or damage users’ personal information that they have collected, or provide users’ personal information to others without consent. Pursuant to the Decision on Strengthening the Protection of Online Information and the Order for the Protection of Telecommunication and Internet User Personal Information, any collection and use of user personal information must be subject to the consent of the user, abide by the principles of legality, rationality and necessity and be within the specified purposes, methods and scopes. An Internet information service provider must also keep such information strictly confidential, and is further prohibited from divulging, tampering or destroying any such information, or selling or providing such information to other parties. An Internet information service provider is required to take technical and other measures to prevent the collected personal information from any unauthorized disclosure, damage or loss. Any violation of these laws and regulations may subject the Internet information service provider to warnings, fines, confiscation of illegal gains, revocation of licenses, cancellation of filings, closedown of websites or even criminal liabilities.

According to the Personal Information Protection Law, where personal information is processed based on an individual’s consent, such consent shall be voluntarily and explicitly given by the individual on a fully informed basis, and the individual shall have the right to withdraw his or her consent without affecting the effectiveness of personal information processing activities that have been conducted based on his or her consent before. Furthermore, the Personal Information Protection Law clarifies that personal information of minors under the age of fourteen is sensitive information, and such sensitive information may not be processed unless there are specific purposes and sufficient necessity and strict protection measures are taken.

According to the Administrative Measures for the Compliance Audit of Personal Information Protection, the personal information processor shall carry out regular compliance audits of personal information protection by itself or entrust a specialized agency to do so. Any personal information processor handling over 10 million people’s personal information shall carry out the compliance audits at least once every two years.

Regulations on Intellectual Property

Regulations on Intellectual Property—European Union

Trademark

According to Article 4 of Regulation (EU) 2017/1001, an EU trade mark may consist of any signs, in particular words, including personal names, or designs, letters, numerals, colours, the shape of goods or of the packaging of goods, or sounds, provided that such signs are capable of: (a) distinguishing the goods or services of one undertaking from those of other undertakings; and (b) being represented on the Register of European Union trade marks (‘the Register’), in a manner which enables the competent authorities and the public to determine the clear and precise subject matter of the protection afforded to its proprietor. The registration of an EU trade mark will confer on the proprietor exclusive rights therein. Moreover, trademark holders may prohibit third parties from using the same or similar marks in commercial activities, and may also prohibit the affixing of the mark to goods or packaging, its sale, import, export, use as a trade name, or use in commercial documents and advertisements. If trademark rights are infringed, the infringer may face corrective measures such as temporary injunctions, orders to prohibit further infringement, recalls of infringing goods, removal from commercial channels, destruction, and compensation for losses.

European Patent

The definition of a patent at the EU level can be found in Article 52 of the Convention on the Grant of European Patents (European Patent Convention), which states: European patents shall be granted for any inventions, in all fields of technology, provided that they are new, involve an inventive step and are susceptible of industrial application. However, the following in particular shall not be regarded as inventions within the aforementioned meaning: (a) discoveries, scientific theories and mathematical methods; (b) aesthetic creations; (c) schemes, rules and methods for performing mental acts, playing games or doing business, and programs for computers; and (d) presentations of information.

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The extent of the protection conferred by a European patent or a European patent application shall be determined by the claims, and a European patent shall confer on its proprietor from the date on which the mention of its grant is published in the European Patent Bulletin, in each Contracting State in respect of which it is granted, the same rights as would be conferred by a national patent granted in that State. Furthermore, the term of the European patent shall be 20 years from the date of filing of the application.

Exterior Design

The definition of “design” under EU law is found in Article 3, paragraph 1 of Regulation (EC) No 6/2002：“design” means the appearance of the whole or a part of a product resulting from the features, in particular the lines, contours, colours, shape, texture and/or materials, of the product itself and/or of its decoration, including the movement, transition or any other sort of animation of those features. A design shall be protected by an EU design, if it is new and has individual character.

A registered EU design shall confer on its holder the exclusive right to use it and to prevent any third party not having the consent of the holder from using it. In particular, these behaviors are prohibited: (a) making, offering, placing on the market or using a product in which the design is incorporated or to which the design is applied; (b) importing or exporting a product referred to in point (a); (c) stocking a product referred to in point (a) for the purposes referred to in points (a) and (b); or (d) creating, downloading, copying and sharing or distributing to others any medium or software which records the design for the purpose of enabling a product referred to in point (a) to be made.

Where an EU design court finds that the defendant has infringed or threatened to infringe an EU design, it shall, unless there are special reasons for not doing so, issue an order prohibiting the defendant from proceeding with the acts which infringed or would infringe the EU design. It shall also take such measures in accordance with its national law as are aimed at ensuring that that prohibition is complied with. Moreover, the EU design court may also apply measures or orders available under the applicable law which it deems appropriate in the circumstances of the case.

Trade Secret

Article 2 of Directive (EU) 2016/943 stipulates that ‘trade secret’ means information which meets all of the following requirements: (a) it is secret in the sense that it is not, as a body or in the precise configuration and assembly of its components, generally known among or readily accessible to persons within the circles that normally deal with the kind of information in question; (b) it has commercial value because it is secret; and (c) it has been subject to reasonable steps under the circumstances, by the person lawfully in control of the information, to keep it secret.

The acquisition of a trade secret without the consent of the trade secret holder shall be considered unlawful, whenever carried out by: (a) unauthorized access to, appropriation of, or copying of any documents, objects, materials, substances or electronic files, lawfully under the control of the trade secret holder, containing the trade secret or from which the trade secret can be deduced; or (b) any other conduct which, under the circumstances, is considered contrary to honest commercial practices. Also, the use or disclosure of a trade secret shall be considered unlawful whenever carried out, without the consent of the trade secret holder, by a person who is found to meet any of the following conditions: (a) having acquired the trade secret unlawfully; (b) being in breach of a confidentiality agreement or any other duty not to disclose the trade secret; or (c) being in breach of a contractual or any other duty to limit the use of the trade secret.

If the conduct constitutes the aforementioned infringement of trade secrets, it may be subject to various injunctions and corrective measures, including: (a) the cessation of or, as the case may be, the prohibition of the use or disclosure of the trade secret; (b) the prohibition of the production, offering, placing on the market or use of infringing goods, or the importation, export or storage of infringing goods for those purposes; (c) the destruction of all or part of any document, object, material, substance or electronic file containing or embodying the trade secret or, where appropriate, the delivery up to the applicant of all or part of those documents, objects, materials, substances or electronic files; (d) recall of the infringing goods from the market; (e) depriving the infringing goods of their infringing quality; and (f) destruction of the infringing goods or, where appropriate, their withdrawal from the market, provided that the withdrawal does not undermine the protection of the trade secret in question.

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Regulations on Intellectual Property—India

Copyrights

Copyright law in India is governed by the Copyright Act, 1957, which has been amended six times, with the last amendment in 2012. It is a comprehensive set of statutes providing for legal protection to copyright, moral rights and neighboring rights. Under the fair use provisions of the Act, section 52(1)(b) provides that transient or incidental storage of a work or performance purely in the technical process of electronic transmission or communication to the public does not constitute infringement of copyright. This provision provides safe harbor to internet service providers that may have incidentally stored infringing copies of a work for the purpose of transmission of data.

The Copyright Rules, 2013, enacted under Section 78 of the Copyright Act, 1957, and came into force on March 14, 2013. However, the Copyright Rules, 2013 mainly serve as the implementing rules of the Copyright Act 1957, detailing the procedural aspects of copyright registration, management and enforcement, but do not have substantive provisions on copyright infringement, electronic transmission and temporary storage.

Patents

Based on the Patents Act, 1970, “invention” is defined as a new product or process involving an inventive step and capable of industrial application and “patent” refers to a patent for any invention granted under this act. Subject to the provisions of the Patents Act, 1970, the term of every patent granted, after the commencement of the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2002, and the term of every patent which has not expired and has not ceased to have effect, on the date of such commencement, under this act, shall be twenty years from the date of filing of the application for the patent. Also, pursuant to Article 48 of Patents Act, 1970, where the subject matter of the patent is a product, the exclusive right to prevent third parties, who do not have his consent, from the act of making, using, offering for sale, selling or importing for those purposes that product in India. Also, where the subject matter of the patent is a process, the exclusive right to prevent third parties, who do not have his consent, from the act of using that process, and from the act of using, offering for sale, selling or importing for those purposes the product obtained directly by that process in India.

Trademark

Trademark means a mark capable of being represented graphically and which is capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one person from those of others and may include shape of goods, their packaging and combination of colors. The registration of a trade mark shall, if valid, give to the registered proprietor of the trade mark the exclusive right to the use of the trade mark in relation to the goods or services in respect of which the trade mark is registered and to obtain relief in respect of infringement of the trade mark in the manner provided by the Trade Marks Act 1999. Sections 103 and 104 of the Trade Marks Act, 1999 establish criminal liability for misuse of trademarks and false trade descriptions. Section 103 punishes acts such as falsifying a trademark, applying a false trademark to goods or services, possessing tools for falsification, applying false trade descriptions, and altering or removing required origin information, unless the person can prove a lack of intent to defraud. Section 104 extends liability to those who sell, offer, or possess goods or provide services bearing false trademarks or descriptions, or lacking required origin information, unless they can show they acted with reasonable precautions, had no suspicion, or acted innocently. In both sections, the prescribed punishment includes imprisonment of at least 6 months and up to 3 years, along with a fine ranging from 50,000 to 200,000 rupees, with limited judicial discretion to reduce the minimum sentence for special reasons.

Regulations on Intellectual Property—Singapore

Patents

Singapore provides a comprehensive legal framework and supporting infrastructure for protecting patents, copyrights, trademarks and industrial designs.

Singapore protects inventive designs and processes through the Patents Act 1994 (as amended from time to time), which is based on the United Kingdom’s Patents Act of 1977. Singapore patents are protected internationally under the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT). A registered patent in Singapore will be protected for 20 years, so long as the owner pays the annual renewal fees. Once registered, the owner can use, sell or license the patent. The criteria Singapore uses in granting a patent is that the invention: (i) is new (i.e., should not be publicly know anywhere in the world), (ii) it must be an improvement that would not be obvious to someone with technical skill or knowledge in that field and (iii) should have practical application, which is generally in line with the criterion in the United Kingdom and the United States.

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If a product or process is found to infringe a registered patent, the court can order damages and an injunction on the use of the infringing product or process.

Copyrights

Singapore’s Copyright Act 2021, as amended from time to time, protects original works such as novels, computer programs, videos and performances, but does not include ideas, procedures, methods or discoveries because these are considered expressions of the underlying idea or discovery. There is no registration process for copyrighting in Singapore, and the copyright begins when the work is created. The author must take steps to show that he or she created the copyrighted work first in order to establish ownership. The author, or owner, of copyrighted material has the exclusive right to publish, perform, broadcast or adapt the work, and can assign or license all or part of the rights to others. An assignment of copyright needs to be in writing; a license can be exclusive or non-exclusive, and an exclusive license needs to be in writing. The protection Singapore affords through copyright laws and the period of protection will vary depending on the relevant type of work.

Copyright infringement may be classified as: (i) primary infringement, covering direct unauthorized usage of the copyrighted work; and (ii) secondary infringement, such as import, sale or trading of items which the infringer knows or should have known was made without the copyright owner’s consent, false attribution of the authorship of a copyrighted work and false removal or alteration of rights management information electronically attached to a copyrighted work.

Copyright infringement is subject to the general exception of “fair use.” When determining whether a work has been fairly used, a variety of factors like the purpose and character of use, the nature of the work being used, the amount and substantiality of the portion of the work being used, and the effect of the use upon the potential market for, or value of, the work must be considered.

Further, the new exception for “computational data analysis” continues to remain relevant. This exception allows a person to use or make a copy of a copyrighted work or recording of a protected performance for purposes such as (i) using a computer program to identify, extract and analyze information or data from the work or recording; and (ii) using the work or recording as an example of a type of information or data to improve the functioning of a computer program in relation to that type of information or data. In practice, this exception may apply where a company is carrying out text and data mining or training an AI system. Nonetheless, the exception is subject to the user having lawful access to the works being copied. The exact scope of what “lawful access” may mean is undefined and remains to be seen.

A copyright owner can look to civil remedies for infringement including damages, an injunction and destruction of the infringing work, or “statutory damages” of not more than S$10,000 per work and S$200,000 in the aggregate.

Trademarks

Singapore protects trademarks through the Trade Marks Act 1998 as amended from time to time as well as under common law (mutually independent of each other). Protection under the Trade Marks Act 1998 is generally conditional upon registration of the trademark with the Registry of Trade Marks within the Intellectual Property Office of Singapore, with the exception of special protection granted under the Trade Marks Act 1998 to ‘well known’ trademarks. Protection for registered trademarks is valid for 10 years from the date of registration and renewable for further periods of 10 years. Registration may be obtained through (i) a domestic application filed with the Registry of Trade Marks or (ii) an international application filed under the Madrid Protocol designating Singapore as a country. An applicant may claim a right of priority where he files for registration of a trade mark in Singapore within six months from an earlier application filed in any country that is a party to the Paris Convention, or a member of the World Trade Organization. Singapore adheres to the Nice Agreement Concerning the International Classification of Goods and Services for the Purposes of the Registration of Marks.

A registered trade mark may be assigned or licensed by the registered proprietor, and such assignment or licensing should be registered with the Registry of Trade Marks in order to be effective against a person acquiring a conflicting interest in the trade mark unaware of such assignment or license.

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A registered proprietor of trademarks can look to a range of civil remedies for infringement, such as injunctions, either damages or an account of profits, or an order for delivery up and/or disposal of infringing articles in relation to the registered trademark. Where the infringement involves the use of a counterfeit trademark, the court may award statutory damages of up to S$1 million without proof of actual loss. Aside from these civil remedies, the registered proprietor may also enforce his trademark rights in criminal proceedings for infringing activities such as (i) counterfeiting a registered trademark, (ii) falsely applying a registered trade mark to goods or services, (iii) making or possessing articles for such infringement offense and (iv) importing or selling goods with falsely applied trademark. Conviction for any of these offenses attracts a fine of up to S$100,000 and/or imprisonment for a maximum term of five years.

Industrial Designs

Protection of industrial designs is available under the Registered Designs Act 2000, as amended from time to time. This Registered Designs Act 2000 is modelled after the UK Registered Designs Act 1949 (as amended in 1988). Registration may be obtained through (i) a domestic application filed with the Registry of Designs within the Intellectual Property Office of Singapore or (ii) an international application filed under the Geneva (1999) Act of the Hague Agreement Concerning the International Registration of Industrial Designs designating Singapore as a country. An applicant may claim a right of priority where he files for registration of a design in Singapore within six months from an earlier application filed in any country that is a party to the Paris Convention, or a member of the World Trade Organization. The maximum duration of the protection conferred by registration is 15 years from the date of registration. Singapore adopts the specification and classification system of the Locarno Agreement Establishing an International Classification for Industrial Designs.

A registered design may be assigned or licensed by the registered owner, and such assignment or licensing should be registered with the Registry of Designs in order to be effective against a person acquiring a conflicting interest in the design unaware of such assignment or license.

A registered owner can look to a range of remedies for infringement such as injunctions, either damages or an account of profits, an order for delivery up and/or disposal of infringing articles in relation to the registered design. However, if the registered owner threatens another person with proceedings for infringement of a registered design, it may be liable for a counterclaim for making groundless threats of design infringement. The remedies in such a counterclaim can include an injunction against the continuance of the threats, damages as well as a declaration that the threats are unjustifiable.

Where a registered design qualifies for protection under the Registered Designs Act 2000 as well as the Copyright Act 2021, there is no cumulative protection under registered design and copyright law: protection is available under the Registered Designs Act 2000 only. Further, if a design is registrable under the Registered Designs Act 2000 but has not been registered, the design will neither be covered by the registered design nor the copyright regime.

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Regulations on Intellectual Property—Indonesia

Copyrights

Copyrights in Indonesia are regulated under Law No. 28 of 2014 on Copyrights. Indonesia adopts the declarative system of copyright protection whereby a copyright is an exclusive right of a creator of content which arises automatically after a creation appears in a concrete form. This exclusive right consists of moral rights and economic rights. Based on Article 5 of the Indonesian Copyright Law, moral rights are eternally inherent to the creator to (i) continue to include or exclude their name on the copy with respect to the public use of the works, (ii) use an alias or pseudonym, (iii) change their creation to comply with appropriateness in the community, (iv) change the title and subtitle of their works, and (v) defend their rights in the event of distortion of creation, mutilation of creation, modification of creation or other acts which will be prejudicial to their honor or reputation. Such moral rights cannot be transferred as long as the creator is alive, but the exercise of these rights is transferrable by testament or other methods in accordance with the Indonesian regulation after their death (inheritance, grant, written agreement, etc.). Economic rights shall mean the exclusive right of the creator or the copyright holder to obtain economic benefit from the work. Such economical rights as stipulated in Article 9 of the Indonesian Copyright Law grant the creator to engage in (i) publication of the creation, (ii) reproduction of the creation in all its forms, (iii) translation of the creation, (iv) adaptation, arrangement, or transformation of the creation, (v) distribution of the creation or their copies, (vi) performance of the creation, (vii) publication of the creation, (viii) communication of the creation, and (ix) rental of the creation. The Indonesia copyright regulation protects creations in the field of science, arts and literature, which includes, among others, computer programs, video games, photography, songs or music with or without lyrics, and all forms of art. However, for certain creations, there are exceptions where protection is not granted. Based on Article 24 of the Indonesian Copyright Law, creations that are not protected under the Indonesian Copyright Law consist of (i) creations that have not been completed in tangible form, (ii) the idea, procedure, system, method, concept, principle, findings, or data, regardless of being expressed, stated, described, explained, or incorporated in a creation, and (iii) tools, objects, or products that are created solely to resolve technical problems or whose form only serve functional needs rather than artistic or literary expression.

Marks

Marks in Indonesia are regulated under Law No. 20 of 2016 as amended by Law No. 6 of 2023, or the Indonesian Mark Law. Based on Article 2 paragraph 2 of Indonesian Mark Law, marks are separated into two categories: trademark and service mark. Protected marks as stipulated in Article 2 paragraph 3 of the Indonesian Mark Law consists of a sign in the form of an image, logo, name, word, letter, number, color arrangement, in two dimensions and/or three dimensions, sounds, hologram, or a combination of two or more on those elements to distinguish goods and/or services that are produced by individuals or legal entities in goods and/or service trading activities. In 2026, Indonesia issued the Ministry of Justice Regulation No. 5 of 2026, guiding the trademark registration process.

Geographical Indication

Geographical indication in Indonesia are regulated under the Indonesian Mark Law. Geographical indication as defined by the Indonesian Mark Law is an indication that identifies the area of origin of goods and/or products based on geographical environmental factors, including natural factors, human factors or a combination of those two factors, that gives certain reputation, quality and characteristics to the produced goods and/or products.

Patents

Patents in Indonesia are regulated under Law No. 13 of 2016 as amended by Law 6 of 2023 and Law of 2024, or the Indonesian Patent Law. Patents are exclusive rights granted by the state to inventors for their inventions or technological improvements that solve specific problems in the form of products or processes. Patents are generally divided into two categories: patent products and patent processes where these patents are warranted with a period of time to implement the invention itself or to give approval to other parties to use it.

According to Article 2 of the Indonesian Patent Law, patent protection can be categorized into two circumstances. First, for patents that are granted for new inventions, contain inventive step/act, and may be applied in industry, Article 22 of the Indonesian Patent Law provides that these patents have a protection period of 20 years and cannot be extended. Second, for simple patents that are granted for a new invention in the event that it is a development of an existing product or process, which consists of a simple product, a simple process, and a simple method, Article 23 of the Indonesian Patent Law provides that this simple patent only has protection period of 10 years and cannot be extended.

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As stipulated in Article 19 of the Indonesian Patent Law, the patent holder has the exclusive right to implement the patent he owns and prohibit other parties who do not have his consent to use it in terms of making, using, selling, importing, leasing, delivering, or providing for sale or lease or delivery of products granted a patent for product patents, as well as in the case of using the patented production process to make goods or other acts in the case of process patents.

In 2026, Indonesia issued the Ministry of Justice Regulation No. 6 of 2026, guiding the patent registration process.

Trade Secret

Trade secrets in Indonesia are regulated under Law No. 30 of 2000, or the Indonesian Trade Secret Law. Trade secret is information that is not known to the public in the field of technology and/or business, has economic value, and is kept confidential by the owner of the trade secret. Article 2 of the Indonesian Trade Secret Law states that the scope of this trade secret includes: (i) production methods; (ii) processing methods; (iii) sales methods; or (iv) other information in the field of technology and/or business that has economic value and is not known by the general public. Pursuant to the Indonesian Trade Secret Law, trade secret has three elements that must be fulfilled, which consist of: (i) confidential, which means that it is only known by certain parties and not general public; (ii) has economic value, which means its secrecy provides a competitive advantage; (iii) is kept confidential through appropriate efforts. The owner of a trade secret, in addition to having the right to use the trade secret himself, can also use it for commercial purposes such as by granting licenses to other parties or prohibiting the use of his trade secret as stipulated in Article 4 of the Indonesian Trade Secret Law.

Regulations on Intellectual Property—Vietnam

Intellectual property rights in Vietnam are mainly governed by the Law on Intellectual Property, its guiding documents such as Decree 103/2016/ND-CP, Decree 100/2006/ND-CP, 65/2023/ND-CP, etc., together with certain international agreements to which Vietnam is a signatory.

In order for certain intellectual property rights to be recognized and enforceable in Vietnam, intellectual property owners must register those rights. Copyrights may be registered with the Department of Copyright of Vietnam but the registration is not compulsory. As a member of the Berne Convention, all copyrights will be protected automatically. However, copyright registration could be helpful for copyright protection, especially for proving the existence of copyrights in disputes. Industrial property, such as patents, trademarks (except for well-known trademarks) and industrial design, must be registered with the Intellectual Property Office of Vietnam in order to be protected in Vietnam, although unregistered rights may be protectable under the laws of unfair competition or passing off. A well-known trademark may be protected based on its use without registration and a trademark license is not required to be registered with the Intellectual Property Office of Vietnam in order to have validity against a third party.

On December 10, 2025, Vietnam promulgated Law No. 131/2025/QH15, which introduced certain amendments to the Intellectual Property Law. This amendment took effect on April 1, 2026. This amendment primarily stipulates the following contents: when intellectual property objects are created by artificial intelligence systems, the Vietnam Government shall establish rules for the generation and establishment of rights. Moreover, this amendment clarifies that the exercise of intellectual property rights shall not harm national or public interests or the legitimate rights and interests of others, and permits organizations and individuals to use lawfully published texts and data accessible to the public for scientific research, experimentation, and training of artificial intelligence systems. Furthermore, this amendment incorporates the management, commercial exploitation, national management safeguards, and digitalization of intellectual property activities into the legal framework, encourages the use of intellectual property for capital contribution or mortgage for loans.

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In addition, Vietnam promulgated No. 100/2026/NĐ-CP on March 31, 2026, making certain amendments to the implementing regulations on intellectual property rights. According to this decree, the intellectual property right holder shall prepare and maintain a list of intellectual property rights that do not yet meet the conditions for recognition as assets in accounting records in accordance with accounting laws. Also, No. 100/2026/NĐ-CP also introduces a fast-track substantive examination mechanism, meaning that, under specific conditions, patent applications and trademark applications are examined through a fast-track substantive examination process. For patent applications, the specific conditions refer to cases where the invention belongs to the list of high-tech or strategic technologies, or is used for national security, defense, disaster, or epidemic emergencies; the number of claims does not exceed 10 (of which no more than 2 are independent claims); it is not a divisional application or a converted application; it has already been commercially exploited; and the fast-track examination fee has been paid. For trademark applications, the specific conditions refer to cases where the mark belongs to the list of high-tech or strategic technologies, or is used for national security, defense, disaster, or epidemic emergencies, or is one of the conditions required for the applicant when carrying out production or business registration or licensing procedures; it is a domestic application submitted directly to the competent national authority (not an international registration application); the trademark type is not a collective mark, certification mark, three-dimensional mark, or sound mark; and the fee has been paid.

Regulations on Intellectual Property—Malaysia

Trademarks

Trademarks in Malaysia are governed by the Trademarks Act 2019 and the Trademarks Regulations 2019. Once a trademark is registered, the registered proprietor of the trademark has the exclusive rights to use the trademark and to authorize other persons to use the trademark, in relation to the goods or services for which the trademark is registered. Registered trademarks are valid for ten (10) years from the date of registration and are renewable for subsequent periods of ten (10) years each. Subject to limited exceptions, no person or enterprise other than the registered proprietor or persons authorized by the registered proprietor may use the trademark, otherwise infringement actions may be taken against such person or enterprise, including actions against counterfeiting a registered trademark.

Copyrights

The main governing legislation for copyright law in Malaysia is the Copyright Act 1987. Pursuant to the Copyright Act 1987, authors of protected works enjoy various exclusive rights, including the rights of reproduction in any material forms, communication to the public, performance, showing or playing to the public, distribution of copies to the public by sale or other transfer of ownership, and commercial rental to the public. Literary works, musical works and artistic works are eligible for copyright protection if sufficient effort has been made to make the works original in character; and the works have been written down, recorded or otherwise reduced to a material form. There is no formal system for registration of copyright in Malaysia. Copyright is conferred automatically on a work once all statutory requirements have been met. That said, copyright owners can claim ownership by way of a Statutory Declaration or by filing a Voluntary Notification at the Intellectual Property Corporation of Malaysia. Online games and computer software or programs are eligible for copyright protection in Malaysia.

Patents

The Patents Act 1983 and the Patents Regulations 1986 govern the protection of inventions in Malaysia. An invention is eligible for patent protection if it is new, involves an inventive step, is industrially applicable, and is not explicitly excluded by the Patents Act 1983. Examples of excluded items include discoveries, rules, and methods for doing business or playing games. Once granted, a patent is valid for a maximum of twenty (20) years from the date of filing, subject to yearly renewal. The owner of a patent is granted exclusive rights to exploit the patented invention, assign or transfer the patent, enter into licensee contracts, and deal with the patent as the subject of a security interest. Anyone seeking to deal with a patent exclusively owned by someone else must obtain prior consent. Infringement of a patent occurs when a person performs any of the acts under the exclusive control of the patent owner without authorization. Such acts include the manufacture, importation, offer for sale, sale, or use of the patented product or process. Opposition to a patent is allowed under the Patents Act by any interested person against the owner of a patent, provided that the requirements and proper procedures under the Patents Act are complied with. The Malaysian Patents (Amendment) Regulations 2025, which came into effect on December 31, 2025, provides detailed regulations on the patent opposition process.

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Regulations on Intellectual Property—Saudi Arabia

Patents and Utility Model

According to Federal Law No. (11) of 2021 on the Regulation and Protection of Industrial Property Rights, a Patent shall be granted for each new Invention resulting from an innovative idea or innovative improvement, which involves an inventive step and is capable of industrial application. On the contrary, a Utility Model Certificate shall be granted for a new Invention that is industrially applicable but does not involve an innovative step that qualifies for a Patent. Pursuant to Article 18 of Federal Law No. (11) of 2021 on the Regulation and Protection of Industrial Property Rights, the term of the Patent shall be twenty (20) years and the term of the Utility Model Certificate shall be ten (10) years, starting from the filing date of the application. A Patent or Utility Model Certificate gives its owner the exclusive right to use the invention for industrial or commercial purposes, including making, using, selling, offering for sale, and importing the protected product, and also allows the owner to prevent others from carrying out these activities without permission. If the invention is a process or method, the protection extends both to the use of that process and to products directly obtained from it, including the right to stop third parties from using or dealing with such products without consent. In the event of infringing any of the rights conferred on the owner by the Protection Title, the Protection Title owner or licensee may file an action before the court to claim for compensation for the damage suffered thereby as a result of the acts of infringement in violation of the provisions hereof.

Trade Secret

Undisclosed information shall be protected under the provisions of Federal Law No. (11) of 2021 on the Regulation and Protection of Industrial Property Rights and the Executive Regulations thereof, provided that it meets the following conditions: (a) it shall be secret in the sense that it is not, as a body or in the precise configuration and assembly of its components, generally known among or readily accessible to persons within the circles that normally deal with the kind of information in question; (b) it has commercial value because it is secret; and (c) it has been subject to reasonable steps by the person lawfully in control thereof to keep it secret. The person lawfully in control of undisclosed information shall take all appropriate measures to maintain the confidentiality of such information and prevent its circulation amongst unauthorized persons and shall also organize and limit the circulation of such information within the establishment to the authorized persons, and preserve and prevent the leakage of such information to third parties. The confidentiality of information, and the attendant rights to prevent others from infringing such information, shall subsist so long as the information is not disclosed. In the event of infringing any of the rights conferred on the owner by the Protection Title, the Protection Title owner or licensee may file an action before the court to claim for compensation for the damage suffered thereby as a result of the acts of infringement in violation of the provisions hereof.

Regulations on Intellectual Property—mainland China

Software

According to the regulations relating to protection of software in mainland China, software owners, licensees and transferees may register their rights in software with the copyright administration department of the State Council or its local branches and obtain software copyright registration certificates. Although such registration is not mandatory under PRC law, software owners, licensees and transferees are encouraged to go through the registration process and registered software rights to be entitled to better protections.

Patents

The Patent Office under the China National Intellectual Property Administration is responsible for receiving, examining and approving patent applications. According to the Patent Law (2020 Amendment), a patent is valid for a twenty-year term for an invention, a ten-year term for a utility model and a fifteen-year term for design, starting from the application date. Except under certain specific circumstances provided by law, any third-party user must obtain consent or a proper license from the patent owner to use the patent, or else the use will constitute an infringement of the rights of the patent holder.

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Copyright

Registration of copyright is voluntary and is administrated by the China Copyright Protection Center. Under the Copyright Law (2020 Amendment) and its implementation rules, anyone infringing upon the copyrights of others is subject to various civil liabilities, which include stopping the infringement, eliminating the damages, apologizing and compensating the copyright owners. An internet information service operator may be subject to cease-and-desist orders and other administrative penalties such as confiscation of illegal income and fines, if it is clearly aware of a copyright infringement through the internet or, although not aware of such infringement, it fails to take measures to remove relevant content upon receipt of the copyright owner’s notice of infringement and, as a result, damages public interests.

According to the Provisions by the Supreme People’s Court on Several Issues Concerning the Application of Law in Hearing Civil Dispute Cases Involving Infringement of the Right of Communication to the Public on Information Networks (Amended in 2020), where a network service provider cooperates with others to jointly provide works, performances, audio and video products of which the right holders have information network transmission right, such behavior will constitute joint infringement of third parties’ information network transmission right, and the PRC court shall order such network service provider to assume joint liability for such infringement. The PRC court shall determine whether a network service provider is liable for abetting or contributory infringement according to the degree of fault of the network service provider.

Domain Name

According to the Measures for Administration of Domain Names, the MIIT is the major regulatory authority responsible for the administration of the PRC Internet domain names. The registration of domain names in PRC is on a “first-apply-first-registration” basis. A domain name applicant will become the domain name holder upon the completion of the application procedure.

Trademark

According to the PRC Trademark Law (Amended in 2019), the Trademark Office of the State Administration for Industry and Commerce (currently known as the Trademark Office of National Intellectual Property Administration) handles trademark registrations and grants a protection term of ten years to registered trademarks.

Regulations on Contents

Regulations on Contents—European Union

Directive (EU) 2015/1535 uses the phrase “any Information Society service, that is to say, any service normally provided for remuneration, at a distance, by electronic means and at the individual request of a recipient of services” to delineate electronic information services.

When any information that, in itself or in relation to an activity, including the sale of products or the provision of services, is not in compliance with EU law or the law of any member state which is in compliance with EU law, irrespective of the precise subject matter or nature of that law, it constitutes “illegal content” under Regulation (EU) 2022/2065. In addition, Regulation (EU) 2022/2065 further provides that providers of online platforms shall not design, organize or operate their online interfaces in a way that deceives or manipulates the recipients of their service, or in a way that otherwise materially distorts or impairs the ability of the recipients of their service to make free and informed decisions.

Moreover, Directive (EU) 2010/13 requires that audiovisual media services shall not contain incitement to violence or hatred directed against a group or a member of a group, nor public provocation to commit terrorist offences. Directive (EU) 2010/13 further provides that Member States shall take appropriate measures to ensure that audiovisual media services provided by media service providers under their jurisdiction which may impair the physical, mental or moral development of minors are only made available in such a way as to ensure that minors will not normally hear or see them. Such measures may include selecting the time of the broadcast, age verification tools or other technical measures. They shall be proportionate to the potential harm of the program. The most harmful content, such as gratuitous violence and pornography, shall be subject to the strictest measures.

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Regulations on Contents—India

Article 2 of the Information Technology Act 2000 (as amended by Information Technology (Amendment) Act of 2008) establishes terminology related to electronic information: Article 2(t) defines electronic record as data, record or data generated, image or sound stored, received or sent in an electronic form or micro film or computer generated micro fiche. Meanwhile, Article 2(v) stipulates information includes data, text, images, sound, voice, codes, computer programs, software and databases or micro film or computer generated micro fiche. Article 67 of the Information Technology Act 2000 further stipulates that whoever publishes or transmits or causes to be published or transmitted in the electronic form, any material which is lascivious or appeals to the prurient interest or if its effect is such as to tend to deprave and corrupt persons who are likely, having regard to all relevant circumstances, to read, see or hear the matter contained or embodied in it, shall be punished on first conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to three years and with fine which may extend to five lakh rupees and in the event of second or subsequent conviction with imprisonment of either description for a term which may extend to five years and also with fine which may extend to ten lakh rupees.

Article 2(b) of the Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021 requires internet intermediaries to take reasonable efforts to ensure users do not host, display, upload, publish, transmit, store, update, or share any information that they have no right to use, or that is obscene, pornographic, pedophilic, invasive of privacy, abusive, discriminatory, or related to money laundering, gambling, harmful online games, or promoting enmity; that harms children; infringes intellectual property rights; is false, misleading, deceptive, or misrepresents the origin of messages or is identified as such by the Central Government; impersonates others; threatens national unity, integrity, security, public order, or friendly relations with foreign states, or incites offences or obstructs investigations; contains malicious software; relates to unverified or prohibited online games or their promotion; or otherwise violates applicable law.

Regulations on Contents—Singapore

The Electronic Transactions Act 2010 defines key concepts forming the basis of electronic information regulation. It defines “electronic communication” as any communication that the parties make by means of electronic records, and “electronic record” as a record generated, communicated, received or stored by electronic means in an information system or for transmission from one information system to another. In addition, “information” is expressed to include data, text, images, sound, codes, computer programs, software and databases.

In terms of prohibited conduct, the Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Act 2019 prevents the electronic communication in Singapore of false statements of fact, and further aims to suppress support for and counteract the effects of such communication, as well as to safeguard against the use of online accounts for such communication and for information manipulation.

Finally, Part 10A of the Broadcasting Act 1994 prohibits the following categories of content: (a) content that advocates or instructs on suicide or self-harm; (b) content that advocates or instructs on violence or cruelty to, physical abuse of, or acts of torture or other infliction of serious physical harm on human beings; (c) content that advocates or instructs on sexual violence or coercion in association with sexual conduct, whether or not involving the commission of a heinous sex crime; (d) content depicting for a sexual purpose, or that exploits, the nudity of a child or part of a child in a way that reasonable persons would regard as being offensive, whether or not sexual activity is involved; (e) content that advocates engaging in conduct in a way that (i) obstructs or is likely to obstruct any public health measure carried out in Singapore, or (ii) results or is likely to result in a public health risk in Singapore; (f) content dealing with matters of race or religion in a way that is likely to cause feelings of enmity, hatred, ill will or hostility against, or contempt for or ridicule of, different racial or religious groups in Singapore; (g) content that advocates or instructs on terrorism; and (h) any other content that is prescribed by Part 10A regulations as egregious content.

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Regulations on Contents—Indonesia

Regulations on Electronic Information Content

Video content and live streaming are categorized as electronic information, which refers to one or a set of electronic data, including, but not limited to, text, voice, images, maps, designs, photographs, electronic data exchanges, e-mails, telegrams, telex, telecopy, letters, symbols, numbers, access codes, or any other form of processed data that conveys meaning and can be understood by individuals. As such, live streaming and video content are regulated under Law No. 11 of 2008 on Electronic Information and Transactions (EIT Law), as last amended by Law No. 1 of 2024. This law mandates that electronic system operators must ensure the reliable, secure, and responsible operation of their platforms. It also emphasizes the protection of children, requiring measures such as minimum age restrictions for product and service usage, verification mechanisms for child users, and reporting systems for content, services, or features that may potentially infringe on children’s rights.

Indonesian regulations strictly prohibit the dissemination of certain types of content through video and live streaming platforms. Under the EIT Law, it is illegal to intentionally and unlawfully distribute, transmit, or make accessible electronic information that contains pornographic or obscene content, gambling-related content, defamatory or offensive material, extortion or threats, and hate speech or incitement of hostility based on ethnicity, religion, race, or inter-group differences (SARA).

Additionally, the law prohibits the deliberate dissemination of false or misleading information that could cause consumer losses in electronic transactions. The law applies not only to offenses committed within Indonesia but also to violations carried out from outside the country that affect electronic systems within Indonesian jurisdiction. Violations of these prohibitions may result in criminal penalties, including imprisonment of up to 10 years and/or a maximum fine of 10 billion Indonesian Rupiah.

Regulations on Pornographic Content

Aside from the EIT Law, Law No. 44 of 2008 on Pornography provides additional, explicit regulations against pornography, including its production, distribution, and dissemination via digital platforms such as video content and live streaming. Article 4 prohibits all forms of pornography, including images, animations, sound, or any other medium that exploits sexuality. Lastly, Article 29 imposes strict penalties on individuals or entities involved in the production, distribution, or facilitation of access to pornographic content, with fines ranging from IDR 250 million to IDR 6 billion and/or imprisonment of 6 to 12 years.

Broadcasting Regulations and Content Standards

Regulations concerning video content and live streaming also fall under Law No. 32 of 2002 on Broadcasting, as amended by Law No. 6 of 2023. Article 36 mandates that broadcast content must include elements of information, education, entertainment, and national development to foster intellectual, moral, and cultural growth while maintaining national unity. Broadcast content must also ensure protection and empowerment of children and adolescents, including appropriate programming schedules and audience classification. The law explicitly prohibits broadcasts that contain defamation, incitement, misleading information, or falsehoods, promote violence, obscenity, gambling, drug abuse, or other illegal activities, and stir conflict based on ethnicity, religion, race, or inter-group differences (SARA).

Protection of Minors

Indonesia’s new legislative developments in the electronic information sector in 2025 primarily focus on the protection of minors. Government Regulation No. 17 of 2025, which came into force on March 27, 2025, establishes a governance framework for child protection in electronic systems. It requires platforms to provide information on the minimum age for the use of their services and products, implement verification mechanisms for minor users, and establish reporting mechanisms for content, services, or features that infringe or may potentially infringe upon children’s rights.

Building upon this framework, Minister of Communication and Digital Regulation Number 9 of 2026 on the Implementing Regulation of Government Regulation Number 17 of 2025 on the Governance of Electronic System Operation in the Protection of Children (“MOCD Regulation 9/2026”) further operationalizes these requirements. It requires Electronic System Operators to conduct a self-assessment to ensure that their products comply with children’s age restrictions and to evaluate the level of risk involved. This assessment covers seven aspects: (a) contact with strangers; (b) exposure to pornographic content, violent content, and other content inappropriate for children; (c) exploitation of children as consumers; (d) threats to the security of children’s personal data; (e) causing addiction; (f) psychological health disturbances in children; and (g) physiological disturbances in children.

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Where one or more of these aspects is assessed as high risk, the product, service, or feature will be categorized as having a High-Risk Profile. Unless otherwise determined based on the results of the self-assessment and the Minister’s evaluation of the risk profile, online and social media services provided by Electronic System Operators are classified as high-risk products, services, and features. In fulfilling their obligation to comply with minimum age restrictions for children, Electronic System Operators providing such products, services, and features are required to deactivate accounts held by children under the age of 16.

In conclusion, Indonesia’s regulations on video content and live streaming are supported with comprehensive legal framework, especially on electronic information security, content restrictions, child protection, and consumer rights. Violations of these laws can lead to severe penalties, including substantial fines and imprisonment. Content creators, live streamers, platforms, and service providers must adhere to these regulations to avoid legal consequences and ensure compliance with Indonesian law.

Regulations on Contents—Vietnam

The Law on Electronic Transactions (No. 20/2023/QH15) defines the “data message” as information that is generated, sent, received, or stored by electronic means; “electronic data” as data that is created, processed, or stored by electronic means; and the “electronic environment” as the environment of telecommunications networks, the Internet, computer networks, and information systems.

The Law on Cybersecurity (No. 24/2018/QH14) prohibits, in cyberspace, organizing or inciting activities opposing the Socialist Republic of Vietnam; distorting history or revolutionary achievements; undermining national unity or offending religion, or engaging in discrimination; disseminating false information causing public panic or harm to socio-economic activities or infringing lawful rights and interests; engaging in prostitution, social evils, or human trafficking, or publishing obscene or harmful content; inciting crimes; appropriating property, organizing gambling, or infringing copyright and intellectual property rights; forging or illegally handling electronic information pages or financial information, or unlawfully using payment instruments; advertising or trading in prohibited goods or services; instigating unlawful acts; and any other acts using cyberspace or electronic means to infringe national security, social order or safety, including posting or spreading content that opposes the State, incites unrest, defames, disrupts order, or discloses state, business, or personal secrets.

However, it should be noted that Vietnam passed the Cybersecurity Law (No. 116/2025/QH15) on December 10, 2025. This law is scheduled to take effect on July 1, 2026 (i.e., it is not yet in force at present), and the former Law on Cybersecurity (No. 24/2018/QH14) will be repealed on the same date. While under Law No. 116/2025/QH15, the following contents will be prohibited: propaganda against the State; incitement to riots or disorder; insults to national symbols and leaders; incitement to violence or armed opposition; mobilization of large gatherings causing disturbances; distortion of national sovereignty; causing social division or undermining solidarity policies; inciting discrimination, hatred, or ethnic and religious division; obstructing or harming state policies; harming the State’s political, economic, social interests or international prestige; obstructing policy implementation; spreading false or fabricated information harming organizations; boycotts causing damage to organizations or businesses; impersonation or counterfeit of organizational information or trademarks; insults or distortion of personal honor; dissemination of false information causing harm; false accusation of crimes; impersonation of individuals; posting or disseminating prohibited content; engaging in cyber-enabled crimes such as fraud, gambling, theft of telecom charges, and IP infringement; impersonation of websites or illegal handling of financial and personal account data; illegal trading or advertising of prohibited goods and services; facilitating illegal online exchanges or platforms; misuse of identities and data for accounts or entities; trading in counterfeit or illicit goods; inciting others to violate the law; and any other acts violating national security, public order, and safety in cyberspace.

Regulations on Contents—Malaysia

The Communications and Multimedia Act 1998 (“CMA 1998”) is the main legislation regulating the communications and multimedia industry. The CMA 1998 provides for the Communications and Multimedia Content Forum(s) to prepare and draw up a Content Code after appropriate consultations, and to enforce the Content Code containing governing standards and practices in the communications and multimedia industry. The Content Code sets out the guidelines and procedures for good practice and standards of content disseminated to audiences by service providers in the communications and multimedia industry in Malaysia. It covers a wide range of topics, including general principles, content standards, advertising and sponsorship, and enforcement. The CMA 1998 also penalises the transmission of prohibited content (including indecent, obscene, false, menacing, or grossly offensive content) with intent to commit offenses involving fraud or dishonesty against any person.

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On February 11, 2025, the Communications and Multimedia (Amendment) Act 2025, which provides amendments to the Communications and Multimedia Act 1998, came into effect. Notably, Section 92 (Sending of unsolicited commercial electronic messages) and Section 112 (Preservation of communications data) of the Amendment Act will come into effect on a later date to be determined by the Minister of Communications. This Amendment Act strengthens the protection of individuals. For example, it introduces Section 233A, which provides that no person shall send, or cause to be sent, or authorize the sending of an unsolicited commercial electronic message in contravention of any provisions of the Act or any regulations made under the Act. At the same time, this Amendment Act enhances the regulatory powers of the Malaysian Communications and Multimedia Commission (MCMC). For example, the MCMC may issue directives to content applications service providers requiring them to suspend their services within a specified period where such providers are found to have violated any relevant provisions of the CMA 1998.

Finally, Online Safety Act 2025 (Act 866) came into effect in January 2026. It requires licensed providers to implement measures to reduce users’ exposure to harmful content, issue clear user guidelines, provide online-safety tools, set up reporting and user-assistance mechanisms, protect child users, establish a mechanism to make “priority harmful content” inaccessible, and prepare, publish and submit an Online Safety Plan. The Schedule of Online Safety Act 2025 list harmful content to include child sexual abuse material, financial fraud, obscene content, indecent content, harassment or threatening content, content inciting violence or terrorism, content inducing child self-harm, content promoting ill-will or hostility, and content promoting dangerous drug.

Regulations on Contents—Saudi Arabia

Under the current relevant provisions in Saudi Arabia, there is no single and unified statutory definition of “electronic information”. Instead, existing legal provisions address such subject matter through concepts such as “data” and “media content.” For instance, the Saudi Arabia Anti-Cyber Crime Law (2007) defines “data” as: “Information, commands, messages, voices, or images which are prepared or have been prepared for use in computers. This includes data that can be saved, processed, transmitted, or constructed by computers, such as numbers, letters, codes, etc.” While the Law of Audiovisual Media (Royal Decree No. M/33) defines “media content” as audio and/or visual material.

With regard to prohibited content, the Saudi Anti-Cyber Crime Law (2007) provides that any person who commits one of the following cyber crimes shall be subject to imprisonment for a period not exceeding five years and a fine not exceeding three million riyals or to either punishment: (a) Production, preparation, transmission, or storage of material impinging on public order, religious values, public morals, and privacy, through the information network or computers; (b) The construction or publicizing of a website on the information network or computer to promote or facilitate human trafficking; (c) The preparation, publication, and promotion of material for pornographic or gambling sites which violates public morals; (d) The construction or publicizing of a web site on the information network or computer to trade in, distribute, demonstrate method of use or facilitate dealing in narcotic and psychotropic drugs. In addition, the Saudi Anti-Cyber Crime Law (2007) stipulates any person who commits one of the following cyber crimes shall be subject to imprisonment for a period not exceeding ten years, and a fine not exceeding five million riyals or to either punishment: (a) The construction or publicizing of a website on the information network or on a computer for terrorist organizations to facilitate communication with leaders or members of such organizations, finance them, promote their ideologies, publicize methods of making incendiary devices or explosives, or any other means used in terrorist activities; (b) Unlawful access to a web site or an information system directly, or through the information network or any computer with the Intention of obtaining data jeopardizing the internal or external security of the State or its national economy.

Finally, the Law of Audiovisual Media requires all persons engaged in audiovisual media activities to comply with the Kingdom’s media policy and a range of content controls, including prohibitions on defamation or blasphemy against religious figures and Islamic tenets, insulting the King or Crown Prince, inciting hatred, violence, or social division, undermining public order, national security, or international relations, and violating human dignity or privacy; it also requires respect for intellectual property rights and freedom of expression within legal limits, prohibits dissemination of false or unverified information, indecent or sexually explicit content, or promotion of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, or unlicensed medicines, supplements, or investment products, mandates modest dress requirements for female presenters as defined by regulations, requires a balance between advertising and content, and any additional controls approved by the competent authority.

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Regulations on Contents—mainland China

Regulations on Internet Content

Internet content in mainland China is regulated and restricted from a state security standpoint. A series of laws and regulations were promulgated to regulate Internet security, including but not limited to the Decisions on Maintaining Internet Security (Amended in 2009), the PRC Law on Preservation of State Secrets, the Administrative Measures for the Graded Protection of Information Security and the Administrative Provisions on the Security Vulnerabilities of Network Products. Internet companies in mainland China are required to complete security filing procedures and regularly update information security and censorship systems for their websites with local public security bureau.

According to the Administrative Measures on Internet Information Services (Amended in 2024), the internet activities that constitute publication of any content that propagates obscenity, pornography, gambling and violence, incite the commission of crimes or infringe upon the lawful rights and interests of third parties are strictly prohibited. If an internet information service provider detects information transmitted on their system that falls within the specifically prohibited scope, such provider must terminate such transmission, delete such information immediately, keep records and report to the governmental authorities in charge. Any provider’s violation of these prescriptions will lead to the revocation of its value-added telecommunication Business Operation License with business scope being information services, or the ICP License, and, in serious cases, the shutting down of its internet systems. The Administrative Provisions on Internet User Account Information and the Administrative Provisions on Mobile Internet Applications Information Services (Amended in 2022) also require internet information service providers to assume their responsibilities of internet user account information management and information content administrator, equip professional personnel and technical capabilities, and establish and implement the real identity information authentication, account information verification, information content security, inspection and management, ecological governance, and personal information protection, data security protection and security assessment.

Pursuant to Administrative Measures for the Business Activities of Online Performances, the operator of online performances shall establish content review system, and be staffed with qualified reviewers for self-censorship, and online performances shall not contain illegal elements. Once the online performances in violation of laws are found, the operator of online performances shall immediately suspend the provision of such performance, and report relevant information to the authorized governmental departments.

According to the Administrative Provisions on Mobile Internet Applications Information Services (Amended in 2022), mobile internet application providers and internet application distribution platforms shall not use mobile internet applications to carry out illegal activities that endanger national security, disturb public order, and infringe upon others’ lawful rights, and shall perform the main responsibility for information content management, and establish and improve management systems for information content security management, information content ecological governance, network data security, personal information protection, and minors protection.

The PRC Data Security Law, among other things, provides for security review procedure for data-related activities that may affect national security. According to the Administrative Measures for Data Security in the Field of Industry and Information Technology (Trial Implementation), a data processor in the field of industry and information technology shall file its catalogue of important data and core data to the local industrial regulatory department for recordation. Important data and core data collected and produced by a data processor in the field of industry and information technology within mainland China shall be stored within mainland China, and shall conduct the security assessment if the cross-border transfer of data is necessary. The Implementing Rules for the Risk Assessment of Data Security in the Field of Industry and Information Technology (Trial Implementation) apply to the data security risk assessment activities conducted by important data and core data processors in the field of industry and information in mainland China. General data processors may also refer to these rules to conduct data security risk assessment.

The Cyber Security Law (Amended in 2025) provides that network operators must set up a classified protection system for cyber security. According to the Cyber Security Law (Amended in 2025), internet operators shall fulfill relevant mandatory security protection obligations. The Administration Measures on the Security Protection of Computer Information Network with Internationally Connections (Amended in 2011) prohibits using the internet in ways which, among others, result in a leakage of state secrets or a spread of socially destabilizing content. The Ministry of Public Security has supervision and inspection powers in this regard, and relevant local security bureaus may also have jurisdiction. If an ICP License holder violates these measures, the PRC government may revoke its ICP License and shut down its websites.

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Regulations on Advertisement Content

According to the Advertisement Law (Amended in 2021), Administrative Regulations for Advertising, and the Internet Advertisement Management Measures, advertisers, advertising agencies, and advertising distributors are required to ensure that the content of the advertisements they prepare or distribute is true and in complete compliance with applicable laws. In providing advertising services, advertising operators and advertising distributors must review the supporting documents provided by advertisers for advertisements and verify that the content of the advertisements complies with applicable PRC laws and regulations. Prior to distributing advertisements that are subject to government censorship and approval, advertising distributors are obligated to verify that such censorship has been performed and approval has been obtained. Violation of these regulations may result in penalties, including fines, confiscation of advertising income, orders to cease dissemination of the advertisements and orders to publish an advertisement correcting the misleading information. Where serious violations occur, the SAMR or its local branches may revoke such offenders’ business licenses.

Regulations on Online Music

According to the series of Notices on Clearing Online Music Products that are in Violation of Relevant Regulations, entities that provide any of the following will be subject to relevant penalties or sanctions imposed by the Ministry of Culture: (a) online music products or relevant services without obtaining corresponding qualifications, (b) imported online music products that have not passed the content review of the Ministry of Culture or (c) domestically developed online music products that have not been filed with the Ministry of Culture. Thus far, we believe that we have eliminated from our platforms any online music products that may fall into the scope of those prohibited online music products thereunder.

Regulations on Tax

Regulations on Tax—Cayman Islands

The Cayman Islands currently levies no taxes on individuals or corporations based upon profits, income, gains or appreciation and there is no taxation in the nature of inheritance tax or estate duty.

Pursuant to Section 6 of the Tax Concessions Act (As Revised) of the Cayman Islands, we have obtained an undertaking from the Governor-in-Cabinet:

The undertaking for us is for a period of 20 years from August 2, 2011.

Regulations on Tax—Singapore

Singapore Income Tax

Under the Singapore Income Tax Act (Chapter 134 of Singapore), a company established outside Singapore but whose governing body, being the board of directors, usually exercises de facto control and management of its business in Singapore could be considered tax residents in Singapore. However, such control and management of the business should not be deemed to be in Singapore if physical board meetings are mainly conducted outside Singapore. Where board resolutions are passed in the form of written consent signed by the directors each acting in their own jurisdictions, or where the board meetings are held by teleconference or videoconference, it is possible that the place of de facto control and management will be considered to be where the majority of the board are located when they sign such consent or attend such conferences.

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We believe that JOYY Inc. is not a Singapore tax resident for Singapore income tax purposes. However, the tax resident status of JOYY Inc. is subject to determination by the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore and uncertainties remain with respect to our tax residence status. It is not certain if JOYY Inc. will be classified as a Singapore tax resident. See “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors—Risks Related to Doing Business in Jurisdictions We Operation— If we are classified as a tax resident of certain jurisdictions for income tax purposes, such classification could result in unfavorable tax consequences to us and our shareholders or ADS holders” for a discussion of the Singapore tax consequences to non-resident investors if JOYY Inc. is deemed to be a Singapore tax resident. The statements below are based on the assumption that JOYY Inc. is not a tax resident in Singapore for Singapore income tax purposes.

Regulations on Tax—mainland China

PRC Enterprise Income Tax

According to the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law and its implementation regulations, a uniform income tax rate of 25% should be applied to resident enterprises and non-resident enterprises that have “establishment or place” situated in China. Besides, enterprises established within China, enterprises established in accordance with the laws of other jurisdictions whose “de facto management bodies” are within China are considered “resident enterprises” and subject to the uniform 25% enterprise income tax rate for their global income. A non-resident enterprise refers to an entity established under foreign law whose “de facto management bodies” are not within China but which have an establishment or place of business in China, or which do not have an establishment or place of business in China but have income sourced within China. An income tax rate of 10% should normally be applicable to dividends declared to or any other gains realized on the transfer of shares by non-PRC resident enterprise investors that do not have an establishment or place of business in China, or that have such establishment or place of business but the income is not substantially connected with the establishment or place of business, to the extent such dividends or other gains are derived from sources within China.

Value-added Tax

The PRC Value-added Tax Law and the Implementation Regulations of the PRC Value-added Tax Law set out that all taxpayers selling goods, services, intangible assets and immovable assets and importing goods in China shall pay a value-added tax. According to the Notice of the Ministry of Finance and the State Administration of Taxation on Adjusting Value-added Tax Rates, the deduction rates of 17% and 11% applicable to the taxpayers who have value-added tax taxable sales activities or imported goods are adjusted to 16% and 10%, respectively. According to the Notice of the Ministry of Finance, the State Administration of Taxation and the General Administration of Customs on Relevant Policies for Deepening Value-added Tax Reform, the value-added tax rate was reduced to 13% and 9%, respectively.

Dividends Withholding Tax

Pursuant to the PRC Enterprise Income Tax Law and its implementation rules, dividends generated after January 1, 2008 and distributed to us by our PRC subsidiaries are subject to withholding tax at a rate of 10%, unless otherwise exempted or reduced according to treaties or arrangements between the PRC central government and governments of other countries or regions where the non-mainland-China-resident holding enterprises are incorporated.

Regulations on Foreign Investment and Related Restrictions—mainland China

Regulations on Value-Added Telecommunications Service and Internet Information Services

According to the Special Administrative Measures (Negative List) for Foreign Investment Access (2024 version), or the 2024 Negative List, the foreign stake in a value-added telecommunications service (except e-commerce, domestic multi-party communication, store-and-forward, and call center services) may not exceed 50%. According to the Telecommunications Regulations (2016 Edition), the Catalog of Telecommunications Business (Amended in 2019) and the Administrative Measures on Internet Information Services (Amended in 2024), the operators of value-added telecommunications services, including internet information services, must obtain value-added telecommunications business operation licenses prior to the commencement of such services in mainland China.

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To comply with such foreign ownership restrictions, we hold ICP Licenses, a sub-category of the value-added telecommunications business operation license, through Guangzhou Huaduo, Guangzhou BaiGuoYuan and other PRC domestic companies, covering the provision of internet and mobile network information services and operate our online platform in mainland China through Guangzhou Huaduo, a subsidiary of Guangzhou Tuyue. Guangzhou Tuyue is indirectly held by selected individuals from our senior management team who are PRC citizens, through limited partnership in mainland China jointly established by these individuals. See “Item 7. Major Shareholders and Related Party Transactions—B. Related Party Transactions—VIE Structure and the Contractual Arrangements.” Based on our PRC counsel Fangda Partners’ understanding of the current laws, rules and regulations of mainland China, our corporate structure complies with all existing laws and regulations of mainland China. However, we were further advised by our PRC counsel that there are substantial uncertainties with respect to the interpretation and application of existing or future laws and regulations of mainland China and thus there is no assurance that mainland China governmental authorities would take a view consistent with the opinions of our PRC counsel.

Regulations on Online Transmission of Audio-Visual Programs

According to the Administrative Provisions on Private Network and Targeted Publication of Audio-Visual Programs Services (Amended in 2021) and the Administrative Provisions on Internet Audio-Visual Program Service (Amended in 2015), providers of internet audio-visual program services are required to obtain a License for Online Transmission of Audio-Visual Programs, or complete certain registration procedures with the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television. Foreign invested enterprises are not allowed to carry out such business. In general, providers of internet audio-visual program services must be either state-owned or state-controlled entities, and the business to be carried out by such providers must satisfy the overall planning and guidance catalog for internet audio-visual program service determined by the State Administration of Radio, Film and Television.

According to the Circular on Issues Relating to the Audit of the Content of Micro Short Dramas in Online Film and Television Dramas and the Notice on Matters Relating to the Administration of Licensing Services for the Distribution of Domestic Online Dramas and Films and the Notice on Further Strengthening the Management of Online Micro Short Dramas and Implementing the Creative Enhancement Plan, the entities operating online micro short drama services, including the micro short dramas Mini Program, shall obtain a License for Online Transmission of Audio-Visual Programs. All online micro short dramas shall pass the content examination by relevant departments and obtain the License for Online Drama Distribution or complete the filing of online audio-visual programs prior to broadcasting, including through Mini Program. For the mini programs micro short dramas that do not hold the License for Online Transmission of Audio-Visual Programs or regulated by the administrative departments of radio and television, or the micro short dramas uploaded by individual users, the online platforms shall perform the responsibility as an operator or the production institutions to access, distribute, link, aggregate and disseminate such online micro short dramas. The online platforms shall implement the management system of online micro short dramas, reviewing before broadcasting, and immediately implement measures such as disconnecting the link, taking offline, and stopping the access for illegal online micro short dramas. The notice further stipulates that the illegal online micro short dramas could be subject to the order to rectify or take offline by the relevant departments. The operators or mini programs broadcasting the illegal online micro short dramas could be subject to penalties such as disconnecting the link, taking offline, taking down, canceling the recordation, stopping the access, revocation of license, and joint disciplinary measures.

Regulations on Online Music

Several Suggestions of the Ministry of Culture on the Development and Administration of Internet Music, among other things, reiterate the requirement for an internet service provider to obtain an Internet Culture Operation License to carry out any business relating to internet music products. In addition, foreign investors are prohibited from operating internet culture businesses. However, the laws and regulations on internet music products are still evolving, and there have not been any provisions clarifying whether music products will be regulated by these suggestions or how such regulation would be carried out.

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Regulations on Foreign Currency Exchange and Dividend Distribution—mainland China

Regulations on Foreign Currency Exchange

Under the Foreign Exchange Administration Regulations (Amended in 2008), the Renminbi is freely convertible for current account items, including the distribution of dividends, interest payments, trade and service-related foreign exchange transactions, but not for capital account items, such as direct investments, loans, repatriation of investments and investments in securities outside of mainland China, unless the prior approval of the State Administration for Foreign Exchange of the PRC, or the SAFE, is obtained and prior registration with the SAFE is made. According to the Reforming of the Management Method of the Settlement of Foreign Currency Capital of Foreign-Invested Enterprises, the Circular of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Further Promoting Cross-border Trade and Investment Facilitation (Amended in 2023) and the Notice of the State Administration of Foreign Exchange on Reforming and Standardizing the Foreign Exchange Settlement Management Policy of Capital Account (Amended in 2023), a foreign-invested enterprise may choose to convert its foreign exchange capital, foreign debt offering proceeds and remitted foreign listing proceeds from foreign currency to RMB on a discretionary basis, and the RMB capital so converted can be used for equity investments within PRC, extending loans to related parties or repaying the inter-company loans, as long as there is a truthful investment and such investment is in compliance with the foreign investment-related laws and regulations. Qualified enterprises in certain pilot areas may use their capital income from registered capital, foreign debt and overseas listing, for the purpose of domestic payments without providing authenticity certifications to the relevant banks in advance for those domestic payments.

The Notice on Further Deepening Reforms to Promote the Convenience of Cross-border Trade and Investment provides that qualified high-tech, “professional, sophisticated, unique and new” and technology-based small and medium-sized enterprises in Guangdong (including Shenzhen), and certain other areas can borrow foreign debt on their own within an amount not exceeding the equivalent of US$10 million.

The Circular on Further Improving Reform of Foreign Exchange Administration and Optimizing Genuineness and Compliance Verification stipulates several capital control measures with respect to the outbound remittance of profit from domestic entities to offshore entities, including (i) under the principle of genuine transaction, banks shall check board resolutions regarding profit distribution, the original version of tax filing records and audited financial statements; and (ii) domestic entities shall hold income to account for previous years’ losses before remitting the profits.

Regulations on Dividend Distribution

The principal regulations governing distribution of dividends paid by wholly foreign-invested enterprises include the PRC Company Law (Amended in 2023), and the Foreign Investment Law and its Implementation Rules. Under these regulations, a wholly foreign-invested enterprise in mainland China, or a WFOE, may pay dividends only out of its accumulated profits, if any, determined in accordance with PRC accounting standards and regulations. In addition, a WFOE is required to allocate at least 10% of its accumulated profits each year, if any, to statutory reserve funds unless its reserves have reached 50% of the registered capital of the enterprises. These reserves are not distributable as cash dividends. Profits of a WFOE shall not be distributed before the losses thereof before the previous accounting years have been made up.

Regulations on Registration with SAFE

Pursuant to SAFE’s Notice on Relevant Issues Relating to Domestic Residents’ Investment and Financing and Round-trip Investment through Special Purpose Vehicles, or SAFE Circular 37, and its appendixes, and the Notice on Further Simplifying and Improving the Administration of the Foreign Exchange Concerning Direct Investment, PRC residents must register with qualified banks in connection with their direct establishment or indirect control of an offshore entity, for the purpose of overseas investment and financing, with such PRC residents’ legally owned assets or equity interest in domestic enterprises or offshore assets or interests, referred to in the SAFE Circular 37 as a “special purpose vehicle.” In the event that a PRC shareholder holding interests in a special purpose vehicle fails to fulfill the required SAFE registration, the PRC subsidiaries of that special purpose vehicle may be prohibited from making distributions of profit to the offshore parent and from carrying out subsequent cross-border foreign exchange activities and the special purpose vehicle may be restricted in their ability to contribute additional capital into its PRC subsidiary. Further, failure to comply with the various SAFE registration requirements described above could result in liability under PRC law for foreign exchange evasion. These regulations apply to our direct and indirect shareholders who are PRC residents and may apply to any offshore acquisitions and share transfer that we make in the future if our shares are issued to PRC residents.

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According to the Administration Measures on Individual Foreign Exchange Control and its Implementation Rules (Amended in 2023), all foreign exchange matters involved in employee stock ownership plans and stock option plans participated in by onshore individuals, among others, require approval from the SAFE or its authorized branch. Furthermore, pursuant to the Notices on Issues concerning the Foreign Exchange Administration for Domestic Individuals Participating in Stock Incentive Plans of Overseas Publicly-Listed Companies, PRC residents who are granted shares or stock options by companies listed on overseas stock exchanges based on the stock incentive plans are required to register with SAFE or its local branches. The foreign exchange proceeds received by the PRC residents from the sale of shares under the stock incentive plans granted and dividends distributed by the overseas listed companies must be remitted into the bank accounts in the PRC opened by the PRC agents retained by such PRC residents before distribution to such PRC residents. In addition, the PRC agents shall file each quarter the form for record-filing of information of the Domestic Individuals Participating in the Stock Incentive Plans of Overseas Listed Companies with SAFE or its local branches. We and our PRC citizen employees who have been granted share options, restricted shares or restricted share units are subject to the aforementioned rules. If we or our PRC optionees fail to comply with the Individual Foreign Exchange Rule and the aforementioned rules, we and/or our PRC optionees may be subject to fines and other legal sanctions. In addition, under the circulars concerning employee share options, our employees working in the PRC who exercise share options will be subject to PRC individual income tax. Our PRC subsidiaries have obligations to withhold individual income taxes of such employees. If our employees fail to pay or if we fail to withhold their income taxes as required by relevant laws and regulations, we may face sanctions imposed by the PRC tax authorities or other PRC government authorities.

Regulations on Labor Laws and Social Insurance—mainland China

According to the Labor Law, and Labor Contract Law, employers must execute written labor contracts with full-time employees. The Law on Social Insurance of the PRC, requires that employers shall pay the pertinent provisions for basic pension insurance, unemployment insurance, maternity insurance, workplace injury insurance and basic medical insurance for the employees. We have caused all of our full-time employees to enter into written labor contracts with us and have provided and currently provide our employees with the proper welfare and employment benefits.

Regulations on Overseas Listing by Domestic Companies—mainland China

According to the Trial Administrative Measures of the Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, or the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and relevant five guidelines, PRC companies that seek to offer and list securities in overseas markets, either directly or indirectly, have to file with the CSRC. Pursuant to a press conference held by CSRC for the release of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and the issuance of the Notice on Administration for the Filing of Overseas Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, PRC companies who had already completed the overseas securities offering and listing before March 31, 2023, are not required to file with CSRC immediately but shall file with CSRC in due course in case of any activities such as follow-on financing in the future that shall be filed with CSRC according to the Overseas Listing Trial Measures.

Given the uncertainty of the interpretation and implementation of the Overseas Listing Trial Measures and our global operations, substantial uncertainties remain, and we could not rule out the possibility that we may be required to file the relevant documents with the CSRC in connection with our proposed offerings and listings outside mainland China in the future.

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According to the Provisions on Strengthening Confidentiality and Archives Administration of Overseas Securities Offering and Listing by Domestic Companies, a PRC domestic company must obtain approvals and make filings with the authorities when providing or publicly disclosing, by itself or through the overseas listing entity, any document or material that involves state secret or state organs work secret. In addition, pursuant to this circular, any investigation, collection of evidence or inspection targeting China-based issuers, securities companies and security service institutions proposed by overseas securities regulatory authorities and the competent departments must be carried out through cross-border regulatory cooperation mechanism and obtain approval from the CSRC or the competent departments.

In addition, the Measures for Cybersecurity Review, among others, (i) a “network platform operator” holding over one million users’ personal information shall apply for a cybersecurity review when listing their securities “in a foreign country”, (ii) a critical information infrastructure operator that intends to purchase internet products and services that affect or may affect national security should apply for a cybersecurity review, and (iii) a “network platform operator” carrying out data processing activities that affect or may affect national security should apply for a cybersecurity review.

Meanwhile, according to the 2024 Negative List, where a domestic enterprise engaging in the prohibited business in the 2024 Negative List issues and lists shares overseas for trading, it shall obtain the approval of the relevant competent department of the state, and the overseas investor shall not participate in the operation and management of the domestic enterprise, and its shareholding ratio shall be subject to the relevant provisions on the administration of domestic securities investment by overseas investors.

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Corporate Structure

The following diagram illustrates our corporate structure as of the date of this annual report, including our significant subsidiaries and the primary operating variable interest entities and their significant subsidiaries:

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Note:

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Our corporate headquarters is located in 30 Pasir Panjang Road #15-31A Mapletree Business City, Singapore 117440. We have leased office space across the globe with an aggregate area of 40,849 square meters.

The corporate headquarters of BIGO are located at the same premises in Singapore. BIGO also has local offices in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, South Korea, Australia, Malaysia, Indonesia, Jordan, mainland China, and many other regions. As of the date of this annual report, BIGO has leased office space with an aggregate area of 22,456 square meters. BIGO’s physical servers are primarily hosted at internet data centers located in Singapore, among others.

We own the use right of several parcel of lands and several buildings located in mainland China. As of December 31, 2025, the parcels of land to which we own use right and the buildings we acquired had an aggregate area of 175,847 square meters. We are conducting construction of buildings on a parcel of land located in Foshan to which we acquired use right in April 2021. Our capital commitment in connection with the construction of buildings located on such parcel was US$68.6 million as of December 31, 2025. We currently expect to complete the planned construction in Foshan in 2026.

We believe that our existing facilities, including facilities under construction, are sufficient for our current and prospective needs in the foreseeable future and we will obtain adequate facilities, principally through leasing, to accommodate our future expansion plans.

See Notes 13 and 14 to our audited consolidated financial statements included elsewhere in this annual report for further information about our property and equipment and land use right.

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ITEM 4A.     UNRESOLVED STAFF COMMENTS

None.

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ITEM 5.     OPERATING AND FINANCIAL REVIEW AND PROSPECTS

You should read the following discussion and analysis of our financial condition and results of operations in conjunction with our consolidated financial statements and the related notes included elsewhere in this annual report. This discussion contains forward-looking statements that involve risks and uncertainties. Our actual results and the timing of selected events could differ materially from those anticipated in these forward-looking statements as a result of various factors, including those set forth under “Item 3. Key Information—D. Risk Factors” and elsewhere in this annual report.

Overview

We are a global technology company with a mission to enrich lives through technology. We operate leading online social entertainment platforms that offer live streaming, short videos, instant messaging, casual games and beyond. We also operate a global advertising platform, which connects advertisers and publishers with high-quality traffic from our social apps and premium international developers, and a global smart commerce platform that enables merchants to easily build their brands online and sell their products to customers around the world. By seamlessly integrating social entertainment with a robust B2B technology stack, JOYY provides a comprehensive ecosystem to facilitate digital engagement and commercial transformation, creating a self-reinforcing flywheel that empowers creators, advertisers and brand merchants worldwide.

Today, we operate in a number of markets across the globe, including North America, Europe, the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and others. The global average mobile monthly active users on our social entertainment platforms reached 272.1 million in the fourth quarter of 2025.

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Our total net revenues amounted to US$2.3 billion in 2023, US$2.2 billion in 2024 and US$2.1 billion in 2025. Our net cash provided by operating activities was US$295.6 million in 2023, US$308.7 million in 2024 and US$302.3 million in 2025.

We derived our revenues primarily from live streaming services, accounting for 87.3%, 79.9% and 72.0% of our total net revenues in 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively. We have been exploring additional monetization opportunities and diversifying our revenue streams beyond livestreaming. In particular, our advertising revenues have demonstrated strong growth momentum in 2025. Our advertising revenues accounted for 5.3%, 14.4% and 20.8% of our total net revenues in 2023, 2024 and 2025, respectively.

Major Factors Affecting our Results of Operations

Our business and results of operations are affected by general factors that, among others, influence the social entertainment, advertising and smart commerce industry in our target markets. Such general factors include:

While our business and results of operations are influenced by the general factors summarized above, we believe that our results of operations are more directly affected by company-specific factors. The specific factors that more directly affect our business and results of operations include:

Discussion of Selected Statements of Operations Items

Revenues

We generate revenue through a diversified mix of global social entertainment and business-to-business (B2B) technology solutions.

Our live streaming revenues are primarily comprised of revenues from our social entertainment platforms, primarily including Bigo Live, Likee, Hago, imo and others. Our advertising revenues are primarily comprised of revenues from BIGO Ads. Other revenues primarily include e-commerce SAAS revenues from Shopline, revenues from online games, and others.

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The following table sets forth the principal components of our total net revenues by amount and as a percentage of our total net revenues for the periods presented.